Contents
1.	Introduction	1
2.	Literature Review	4
2.1.	Theoretical Frameworks	4
2.2.	Methodological Consideration	5
3.	Methodology	8
3.1.	Empirical Strategy	8
3.1.1.	Stage 1: Tests for the Validity of the Instrument Variable and for the Endogeneity	9
3.1.2.	Stage 2: IV Estimation and Sequential Inclusion of Control Variables	12
3.2.	Subgroup Analyses: Gender and Race	13
3.3.	Lagged and Contemporaneous Internalized Religious Normative Restriction	13
4.	Data and Descriptive Statistics	14
4.1.	Description of PSID	14
4.2.	Variable selection and Descriptive statistics	15
4.2.1.	Dependent variables- risk behaviors	21
4.2.2.	Independent variables- religiosity	22
4.2.3.	Controlled variables	23
5.	Empirical Results	25
5.1.	The validity of the IV, the importance of religion	25
5.2.	Full Sample Analysis	26
5.3.	Gender Subsample Analysis	30
5.4.	Ethnic Subsample Analysis	32
6.	Conclusions and Discussions	34
References	39
Appendix		48
 
Tables
Table 1: Definitions of Variables	20
Table 2: Descriptive Statistics	22
Table 3: Prevalence of Risk Behaviors by Subsample in Childhood and Adulthood Religiosity Regressions (%)	23
Table 4: The Importance of Religion for Each Sample Group	28
Table 5: P-value of the Test for Endogeneity (Wald test and Durbin-Wu-Hausman test)	29
Table 6: Coefficient of Gender in the Regression on Each Risk Behavior	30
Table 7: Coefficients of White and African American in Regression on Each Risk Behavior	31
Table 8: Coefficient of Religious Attendance on Each Risk Behavior (before and after adding peer influence) in Full Sample Analysis.	32
Table 9: Coefficient of Religious Attendance on Each Risk Behavior (before and after adding peer influence) in Gender Subsample Analysis.	33
Table 10: Coefficient of Religious Attendance on Each Risk Behavior (before and after adding peer influence) in Ethnic Subsample Analysis.	35

Table A1: Damage_dummy IV probit	51
Table A2: Damage IV OLS	52
Table A3: Damage_dummy probit & Damage OLS (Full Sample)	53
Table A4: Damage_dummy probit (Gender Subgroup Sample)	54
Table A5: Damage OLS (Gender Subgroup Sample)	55
Table A6: Damage_dummy probit (Ethnic Subgroup Sample)	56
Table A7: Damage OLS (Ethnic Subgroup Sample)	57
Table A8: Smoke_dummy IV probit	58
Table A9: Smoke IV OLS	59
Table A10: Smoke_dummy probit & Smoke OLS (Full Sample)	60
Table A11: Smoke_dummy probit (Gender Subgroup Sample)	61
Table A12: Smoke OLS (Gender Subgroup Sample)	62
Table A13: Smoke_dummy probit (Ethnic Subgroup Sample)	63
Table A14: Smoke OLS (Ethnic Subgroup Sample)	64
Table A15: Amp_dummy IV probit	65
Table A16: Amp IV OLS	66
Table A17: Amp_dummy probit & Amp OLS (Full Sample)	67
Table A18: Amp_dummy probit (Gender Subgroup Sample)	68
Table A19: Amp OLS (Gender Subgroup Sample)	69
Table A20: Amp_dummy probit (Ethnic Subgroup Sample)	70
Table A21: Amp OLS (Ethnic Subgroup Sample)	71
Table A22: Coc_dummy IV probit	72
Table A23: Coc IV OLS	73
Table A24: Coc_dummy probit & Coc OLS (Full Sample)	74
Table A25: Coc_dummy probit (Gender Subgroup Sample)	75
Table A26: Coc OLS (Gender Subgroup Sample)	76
Table A27: Coc_dummy probit (Ethnic Subgroup Sample)	77
Table A28: Coc OLS (Ethnic Subgroup Sample)	78
Table A29: Mar_dummy IV probit	79
Table A30: Mar IV OLS	80
Table A31: Mar_dummy probit & Mar OLS (Full Sample)	81
Table A32: Mar_dummy probit (Gender Subgroup Sample)	82
Table A33: Mar OLS (Gender Subgroup Sample)	83
Table A34: Mar_dummy probit (Ethnic Subgroup Sample)	84
Table A35: Mar OLS (Ethnic Subgroup Sample)	85
Table A36: Drunkdriver_dummy IV probit	86
Table A37: Drunkdriver_dummy probit (Full Sample)	87
Table A38: Drunkdriver_dummy probit (Gender Subgroup Sample)	88
Table A39: Drunkdriver_dummy probit (Ethnic Subgroup Sample)	89

Adamczyk, A., & Hayes, B. E. (2012). Religion and Sexual Behaviors. American Sociological Review, 77(5), 723–746. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122412458672
Ameri, Z., Mirzakhani, F., Nabipour, A. R., Khanjani, N., & Sullman, M. J. M. (2017). The Relationship Between Religion and Risky Behaviors Among Iranian University Students. Journal of Religion and Health, 56(6), 2010–2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-016-0337-1
American Institution in Taiwan. (2024, August 9). 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Taiwan. American Institute in Taiwan. https://www.ait.org.tw/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom-taiwan/
Amit, B. H., Krivoy, A., Mansbach-Kleinfeld, I., Zalsman, G., Ponizovsky, A. M., Hoshen, M., Farbstein, I., Apter, A., Weizman, A., & Shoval, G. (2014). Religiosity is a protective factor against self-injurious thoughts and behaviors in Jewish adolescents: Findings from a nationally representative survey. European Psychiatry, 29(8), 509–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2014.04.005
Arnett, J. J. (2004). Emerging adulthood : The winding road from the late teens through the twenties. Oxford University Press.
Arnett, J. J., & Jensen, L. A. (2002). A congregation of one: Individualized religious beliefs among emerging adults. Journal of Adolescent Research, 17(5), 451–467. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279886891_A_congregation_of_one_Individualized_religious_beliefs_among_emerging_adults
Bachman, J. G., O’Malley, P. M., Schulenberg, J. E., Johnston, L. D., Bryant, A. L., & Merline, A. C. (2014). The Decline of Substance Use in Young Adulthood. Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410606013
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. APA PsycNet; Prentice-Hall. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1979-05015-000
Batzke, M., & Ernst, A. (2023). Conditions and Effects of Norm Internalization. Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation, 26(1). https://doi.org/10.18564/jasss.5003
Brown, R., & Ogden, J. (2004). Children’s eating attitudes and behaviour: A study of the modelling and control theories of parental influence. Health Education Research, 19(3), 261–271. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cyg040
Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. (2015). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS) | CMS. Cms.gov. https://www.cms.gov/About-CMS/Agency-Information/OMH/resource-center/hcps-and-researchers/data-tools/sgm-clearinghouse/yrbss?utm_source=chatgpt.com
Chartier, M. J., Walker, J. R., & Naimark, B. (2009). Health Risk Behaviors and Mental Health Problems as Mediators of the Relationship Between Childhood Abuse and Adult Health. American Journal of Public Health, 99(5), 847–854. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2007.122408
Chatters, L. M., Taylor, R. J., Bullard, K. M., & Jackson, J. S. (2009). Race and ethnic differences in religious involvement: African Americans, Caribbean blacks and non-Hispanic whites. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 32(7), 1143–1163. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870802334531
Chen, H.-W., Chu, N.-F., Chen, H.-H., & Yeh, M.-L. (2014). The Smoking Behaviors of Indigenous Taiwanese. Journal of Nursing Research, 22(1), 12–19. https://doi.org/10.1097/jnr.0000000000000014
Cheng, A. T. A., & Chen, W. J. (1995). Alcoholism among Four Aboriginal Groups in Taiwan: High Prevalences and Their Implications. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 19(1), 81–91. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1995.tb01474.x
Cheng, T. Y. (2005). Reducing health disparity in Taiwan: quantifying the role of smoking. Tobacco Control, 14(suppl_1), i23–i27. https://doi.org/10.1136/tc.2003.005546
Conger, R. D. (1976). Social Control and Social Learning Models of Delinquent Behavior: A Synthesis. Criminology, 14(1), 17–40. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1976.tb00002.x
Connell, R. W. (2005). Masculinities (2nd ed., pp. 67–86). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003116479
Conte, R., Andrighetto, G., & Campennì, M. (2010). Internalizing Norms. International Journal of Agent Technologies and Systems, 2(1), 63–73. https://doi.org/10.4018/jats.2010120105
de Vaus, D., & McAllister, I. (1987). Gender Differences in Religion: A Test of the Structural Location Theory. American Sociological Review, 52(4), 472. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095292
Desmond, S. A., & Kraus, R. (2014). The Effects of Importance of Religion and Church Attendance on Adolescents’ Moral Beliefs. Sociological Focus, 47(1), 11–31. https://doi.org/10.2307/24579357
Durkheim, E. (1951). Suicide. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203994320
Edgell, P. (2012). A Cultural Sociology of Religion: New Directions. Annual Review of Sociology, 38(1), 247–265. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-071811-145424
Émile Durkheim, & Fields, K. E. (1995). The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life (pp. 207–241). The Free Press.
Evans, T. D., Cullen, F. T., Dunaway, R. G., & Burton, V. S. (1995). Religion and Crime Reexamined: The Impact of Religion, Secular Controls and Social Ecology on Adult Criminality. Criminology, 33(2), 195–224. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1995.tb01176.x
Finke, R., & Stark, R. (1998). Religious Choice and Competition. American Sociological Review, 63(5), 761. https://doi.org/10.2307/2657339
Giletta, M., Choukas-Bradley, S., Maes, M., Linthicum, K. P., Card, N. A., & Prinstein, M. J. (2021). A meta-analysis of longitudinal peer influence effects in childhood and adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 147(7), 719–747. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000329
Grasmick, H. G., Bursik, R. J., & Cochran, J. K. (1991). “Render Unto Caesar What Is Caesar’s”: Religiosity and Taxpayers’ Inclinations to Cheat. The Sociological Quarterly, 32(2), 251–266. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.1991.tb00356.x
Gruber, J. H. (2005). Religious Market Structure, Religious Participation, and Outcomes: Is Religion Good for You? Advances in Economic Analysis & Policy, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.2202/1538-0637.1454
Han, Y., Kim, H., & Lee, D. (2016). Application of social control theory to examine parent, teacher, and close friend attachment and substance use initiation among Korean Youth. School Psychology International, 37(4), 340–358. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034316641727
Hardie, J. H., Pearce, L. D., & Denton, M. L. (2013). The Dynamics and Correlates of Religious Service Attendance in Adolescence. Youth & Society, 48(2), 151–175. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118x13483777
Hayward, R. D., & Krause, N. (2013). Patterns of change in religious service attendance across the life course: Evidence from a 34-year longitudinal study. Social Science Research, 42(6), 1480–1489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2013.06.010
Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of Delinquency. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315081649
Huesmann, L. R. (2007). The Impact of Electronic Media Violence: Scientific Theory and Research. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41(6), S6–S13. National Library of Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.09.005
Hummer, R. A., Rogers, R. G., Nam, C. B., & Ellison, C. G. (1999). Religious Involvement and U.S. Adult Mortality. Demography, 36(2), 273–285. https://doi.org/10.2307/2648114
Hwu, H.-G. ., Yeh, Y.-L. ., Wang, J.-D. ., & Yeh, E.-K. . (1990). Alcoholism among Taiwan aborigines defined by the Chinese Diagnostic Interview Schedule: a comparison with alcoholism among Chinese. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 82(5), 374–380. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1990.tb01404.x
Jang, S. J., Bader, C. D., & Johnson, B. R. (2008). The Cumulative Advantage of Religiosity in Preventing Drug Use. Journal of Drug Issues, 38(3), 771–798. https://doi.org/10.1177/002204260803800306
Jin, Y. (2022). Development and Application of Social Learning Theory. Learning & Education, 10(7), 183. https://doi.org/10.18282/l-e.v10i7.3002
Johnson, D. W., McGonagle, K. A., Freedman, V. A., & Sastry, N. (2018). Fifty Years of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics: Past, Present, and Future. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 680(1), 9–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716218809363
Liu, P.-C. (2024). The dynamic diversity of Taiwan’s Indigenous religions: Animism, analogism, and totemism. Social Compass, 71(2), 289–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/00377686241261281
Mathieu, C. (2021). Social Desirability Bias - an overview. Sciencedirect.com. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/social-desirability-bias
McGonagle, K., Schoeni, R., Sastry, N., & Freedman, V. (2012). The Panel Study of Income Dynamics: overview, recent innovations, and potential for life course research. Longitudinal and Life Course Studies, 3, 268–284. https://psidonline.isr.umich.edu/llcs2012.pdf
McMillan, C., Felmlee, D., & Osgood, D. W. (2018). Peer influence, friend selection, and gender: How network processes shape adolescent smoking, drinking, and delinquency. Social Networks, 55, 86–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socnet.2018.05.008
McQuillan, K., & Gehrmann, R. (2017). The Impact of Religious Denomination on Mentality and Behavior: an Introduction. Historical Social Research, 42(2), 7–22. https://doi.org/10.12759/hsr.42.2017.2.7-22
Mellor, J. M., & Freeborn, B. A. (2010). Religious participation and risky health behaviors among adolescents. Health Economics, 20(10), 1226–1240. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.1666
Moon, J. W., Tratner, A. E., & McDonald, M. M. (2022). Men are less religious in more gender-equal countries. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 289(1968). https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2021.2474
Naghi, A. A., Váradi, M., & Zhelonkin, M. (2022). Robust Estimation of Probit Models with Endogeneity. Econometrics and Statistics. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecosta.2022.05.001
National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse. (2001, November). So Help Me God: Substance Abuse, Religion and Spirituality | Office of Justice Programs. Www.ojp.gov. https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/so-help-me-god-substance-abuse-religion-and-spirituality
Newey, W. K. (1987). Efficient estimation of limited dependent variable models with endogenous explanatory variables. Journal of Econometrics, 36(3), 231–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4076(87)90001-7
Patrick, R. H. (2020). Durbin–Wu–Hausman Specification Tests. In World Scientific Book Chapters (pp. 1075–1108). World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. https://ideas.repec.org/h/wsi/wschap/9789811202391_0028.html
Pew Research Center. (2025, February 26). Decline of Christianity in the U.S. Has Slowed, May Have Leveled Off. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/02/26/decline-of-christianity-in-the-us-has-slowed-may-have-leveled-off/
Phillips, R. (1998). Religious Market Share and Mormon Church Activity. Sociology of Religion, 59(2), 117. https://doi.org/10.2307/3712076
Pinki, Krishan, K., Sony, & Kumar Behmani, R. (2023). Religious Practices and Gender Differences: A Psychological Review. The International Journal of Indian Psychology, ISSN(3), 2349–3429. https://doi.org/10.25215/1103.434
Prinstein, M. J., & Dodge, K. A. (2010). Understanding Peer Influence in Children and Adolescents. Guilford Press. https://www.guilford.com/books/Understanding-Peer-Influence-in-Children-and-Adolescents/Prinstein-Dodge/9781606236475/audience?srsltid=AfmBOopUheJQXJELbQFXeS2biindnypkr4SygHgYpbQT7S0CuYDSvM8G
PSID. (2025a, April 15). Child Development Supplement (CDS). Panel Study of Income Dynamics; The Survey Research Center, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. https://simba.isr.umich.edu/DC/s.aspx
PSID. (2025b, April 15). Transition into Adulthood Supplement (TAS). Panel Study of Income Dynamics; The Survey Research Center, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. https://simba.isr.umich.edu/DC/s.aspx
PSID. (2025c, April 16). CDS-TAS Study Design. Psidonline.isr.umich.edu. https://psidonline.isr.umich.edu/CDS/Guide/StudyDesign.aspx
Reese, A. M., Thorpe, R. J., Bell, C. N., Bowie, J. V., & LaVeist, T. A. (2012). The Effect of Religious Service Attendance on Race Differences in Depression: Findings from the EHDIC-SWB Study. Journal of Urban Health, 89(3), 510–518. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-011-9659-1
Roof, W. C., & McKinney, W. (1987). American Mainline Religion. In Bucknell University Press. Rutgers University Press. https://www.rutgersuniversitypress.org/bucknell/american-mainline-religion/9780813512167/
Sanna, M., Gao, W., Chiu, Y., Chiou, H., Chen, Y., Wen, C., & Levy, D. T. (2020). Tobacco control within and beyond WHO MPOWER: outcomes from Taiwan SimSmoke. Tob Control, 29(1), 36. https://doi.org/10.1136/tobaccocontrol2018054544
Shepperd, J. A., & Forsyth, R. (2023). How Does Religion Deter Adolescent Risk Behavior? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 32(4), 096372142311644-096372142311644. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214231164404
Shepperd, J. A., Miller, W. A., Smith, C. T., & Algina, J. (2014). Does religion offer worldviews that dissuade adolescent substance use? Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 6(4), 292–301. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037052
Simons-Morton, B. G., & Farhat, T. (2010). Recent Findings on Peer Group Influences on Adolescent Smoking. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 31(4), 191–208. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-010-0220-x
Smith, C., & Denton, M. L. (2005a). Adolescent Religion and Life Outcomes. In Oxford University Press eBooks (pp. 218–258). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/019518095x.003.0008
Smith, C., & Denton, M. L. (2005b). Soul Searching. In Oxford University PressNew York eBooks. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/019518095x.001.0001
Smout, A., Newton, N. C., Slade, T., O’Donoghue, B., & Chapman, C. (2020). The relationship between early risk-taking behavior and mental health problems among a nationally representative sample of Australian youth. Journal of Affective Disorders, 272, 239–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.04.040
Stark, R., & Bainbridge, W. S. (1996). A theory of religion. Rutgers University Press.
Stock, J. H., & Yogo, M. (2011). Testing for Weak Instruments in Linear IV Regression. Ssrn.com. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1734933
Sun, F. (2023). Social control theory of crime. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/social-control-theory.html
Survey Research Data Archive. (2024). Taiwan Social Change Survey. Sinica.edu.tw. https://srda.sinica.edu.tw/plan/?idx=SRDA.AS002
Taiwan Panorama. (2023, May 15). Religion, Taiwan Style: The Polytheistic Universe of Folk Beliefs. New Southbound Policy. https://nspp.mofa.gov.tw/nsppe/news.php?post=237079&unit=412&unitname=RELATED-READS&postname=Religion
Tariq, N., & Gupta, V. (2023, July 10). High Risk Behaviors. PubMed; StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560756/
Taubman – Ben-Ari, O., & Skvirsky, V. (2019, January 1). Chapter 23 - The Terror Management Underpinnings of Risky Behavior (C. Routledge & M. Vess, Eds.). ScienceDirect; Academic Press. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128118443000238
Taylor, R. J., Chatters, L. M., Jayakody, R., & Levin, J. S. (1996). Black and White Differences in Religious Participation: A Multisample Comparison. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 35(4), 403. https://doi.org/10.2307/1386415
Tsai, L.-T., Lo, F.-E., Yang, C.-C., Lo, W.-M., Keller, J., Hwang, C.-W., Lin, C.-F., Lyu, S.-Y., & Morisky, D. (2016). Influence of Socioeconomic Factors, Gender and Indigenous Status on Smoking in Taiwan. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 13(11), 1044. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13111044
Wallace, J. M., Williams, D. R., Schulenberg, J., Maggs, J. L., & Hurrelmann, K. (1997). Health Risks and Developmental Transitions During Adolescence. Cambridge University Press. https://scholar.harvard.edu/davidrwilliams/dwilliam/publications/religion-and-adolescent-health-compromising-behavior
White, C. J. M., Muthukrishna, M., & Norenzayan, A. (2021). Cultural similarity among coreligionists within and between countries. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(37). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2109650118
Widowaty, Y. (2019). The Application of Social Control Theory in Preventing Violent Crime by Juvenile Delinquent. Jurnal Media Hukum, 26(2). https://doi.org/10.18196/jmh.20190133
Wooldridge, J. (2010). Econometric Analysis of Cross Section and Panel Data. https://ipcid.org/evaluation/apoio/Wooldridge%20-%20Cross-section%20and%20Panel%20Data.pdf
Wooldridge, J. M. (2020). Introductory Econometrics: A Modern Approach (7th ed.). Cengage Learning, Inc., Boston, MA, USA.