巴西身為拉丁美洲國家最大的經濟體，境內擁有六成的亞馬遜雨林面積，自昔日軍政府統治開始，由於大規模開發雨林內的自然資源及興建基礎建設，對環境造成極大的破壞。但在當時環保意識較為薄弱，因此，在環境保護上較無作為。
    勞工黨政府掌權後，執政者對於雨林保護重視程度較高，再加上國際間環境保護的共識也較為清晰，在各方面的影響之下，巴西在發展國家經濟的同時，政府也採取了一些環保政策因應，使毀林面積增速減緩。此外，環保組織的監督及其他國家資金與技術的協助也為雨林保護帶來成果。
    儘管如此，巴西在雨林保護上仍面臨許多難題，諸如人力資源不足及土地紛爭等，因此，在經濟發展和環境保護之間取得平衡還需要更多的努力。故本論文以勞工黨執政下和雨林相關的經濟發展及多方角色對於雨林保護上的作為及影響做分析。

Brazil, as the largest economy in Latin America, possesses 60% of the Amazon rainforest in its territory. Since military government rule, large-scale development of natural resources in the rainforest and construction of infrastructure have caused great environmental damage. However, environmental protection awareness was relatively weak at that time, so environmental protections were lackluster.
After the Workers' Party came to power, the government attached more importance to rainforest protection. In addition, international consensus on environmental protection was also clearer. Under the influence of various vested parties, the Brazilian government employed some environmental measures while still developing the national economy causing deforestation rates to slow. Moreover, the supervision of environmental organizations and the assistance of funding and technology from other countries have also brought some results for rainforest protection.
Nevertheless, Brazil still faces many difficulties, such as insufficient human resources and land-related conflicts, etc. Therefore, more efforts are needed to strike a balance between economic development and environmental protection.  Consequently, this thesis analyzes economic developments related to the rainforest and the multi-party role in rainforest protections under the Workers' Party.

第一章 緒論	1
第一節 研究動機	1
第二節 研究目的	2
第三節 研究方法與途徑	3
第四節 研究架構	3
第五節 文獻檢閱	4
第二章 雨林、經濟發展及環保之間的關聯性	9
第一節 森林價值	9
第二節 亞馬遜雨林之特性	19
第三節 森林環保意識的演進	24
第三章 巴西經濟發展歷程	31
第一節 民主化前期與卡多索時期	31
第二節 魯拉時期（2003-2010）	40
第三節 羅塞芙時期（2011-2016）	47
第四章 巴西及國際間對雨林保護的對策	53
第一節 勞工黨政府的環保政策	54
第二節 巴西環保團體的努力	62
第三節 國際社會的立場及相關作為	69
第五章 結論	77
參考文獻	85
 
圖表目錄
圖目錄
圖 1-1亞馬遜雨林地理位置	7
圖 1-2巴西行政區域劃分	8
圖 2-1直接與間接毀林因素在非洲、拉丁美洲、東南亞的佔比（2000-2010）	13
圖 2-2全球原木生產量（2010-2019）	16
圖 2-3非木材林產品經濟價值佔比（2015）	18
圖 2-4南美洲國家的鋸材生產量和出口量（2019）	22
圖 3-1亞馬遜法定地區	32
圖 3-2 BR-163道路示意圖（2003）	45
圖 4-1亞馬遜森林保護區綜合效益評估	57
圖 4-2巴拉州行政區域森林砍伐的年增長率（2011-2014）	66

表目錄
表 2-1全球森林面積最大的十個國家（2020）	10
表 2-2全球森林面積變化趨勢（1990-2020）	11
表 2-3森林類型比較表	14
表 2-4天然再生林的面積及佔比（2020）	15
表 2-5亞馬遜地區人口（2020）	21
表 3-1亞馬遜地區牛隻數量（1970-1985）	33
表 3-2巴西牛肉產品出口（1995-2002）	39
表 3-3巴西與亞馬遜地區大豆種植面積（2003-2010）	43
表 3-4馬托格羅州牧場數量、面積與毀林比例（2008年1月至8月）	46
表 3-5採礦區與採礦區外70公里範圍內森林面積變化（2005-2015）	51
表 3-6巴西與亞馬遜地區大豆種植面積（2011-2016）	52
表 4-1「社會環境管理計畫」前期、執行期間與結束後一年的森林砍伐面積	67
表 4-2巴拉州11個行政區域在農村環境登記系統（CAR）註冊的數據	68

壹、中文文獻

〈中國過去十年淨增森林面積全球之最沙漠變綠洲有何秘訣〉，BBC中文網， 2020年7月24日，< https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/trad/chinese-news-53523742> 

何露楊，〈巴西氣候變化政策及其談判立場的解讀與評價〉，《拉丁美洲研究》38（2016年4月）：79-95。

〈拜登上任一個月 美國正式重返巴黎氣候協定〉，中央社，2021年2月19日，https://www.cna.com.tw/news/firstnews/202102190305.aspx

唐雅陵，〈亞馬遜火災受批評 巴西總統反嗆各國煽情攻擊〉，中央社，2019年9月25日，< https://www.cna.com.tw/news/aopl/201909250025.aspx>

〈好消息！亞馬遜水壩計畫撤回〉，綠色和平，2016年8月8日，
https://www.greenpeace.org/taiwan/update/4526/%E5%A5%BD%E6%B6%88%E6%81%AF%EF%BC%81%E4%BA%9E%E9%A6%AC%E9%81%9C%E6%B0%B4%E5%A3%A9%E8%A8%88%E7%95%AB%E6%92%A4%E5%9B%9E/

淡水河谷，〈卡拉加斯S11D鐵礦石項目〉，（2012年6月）：1-47，http://www.vale.com/china/CH/initiatives/innovation/s11d/Documents/Final_book_S11D_Mandarin.pdf

張曉紅、黃清麟、張超，〈ITTO對原始林、退化原始林、次生林和其他熱帶森林類別的界定〉，《世界林業研究》22（2009年6月）：30-35。

貳、外文文獻

一、專書

Andersen, Lykke E., Clive W. J. Granger, Eustaquio J. Reis, Diana Weinhold, and Sven Wunder. The Dynamics of Deforestation and Economic Growth in the Brazilian Amazon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. 

Bezerra, Joana. The Brazilian Amazon: Politics, Science and International Relations in the History of the Forest. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing, 2015. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-3-319-23030-6.pdf

Caravaggio, Nicola, Salvatore Monni, Valeria Costantini, Martina Iorio, and Elena Paglialunga. “The challenge of hydropower as a sustainable development alternative: Benefits and controversial effects in the case of the Brazilian Amazon.” In Inequality and Uneven Development in the Post-Crisis World, edited by Sebastiano Fadda and Pasquale Tridico. New York: Routledge, 2018.

Cromberg, Marina, Amy E Duchelle, Gabriela Simonet, and Alexandra Coraça de Freitas. “Sustainable Settlements in the Amazon, Brazi.” In REDD+ on the ground: A case book of subnational initiatives across the globe, edited by Erin O. Sills, Stibniati S. Atmadja, Claudio de Sassi, Amy E. Duchelle, Demetrius L. Kweka, Ida Aju Pradnja Resosudarmo, and William D. Sunderlin, 124-143. Bogor: Center for Internatinal Forestry Research, 2014. https://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/books/BCIFOR1403.pdf

Henkin, Hélio. Trade-offs and Choices of Economic Policy in Brazil: The Lula Years and the New Directions toward Development after 2010. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1057%2F9781137273819_5.pdf

Onis, Juan de. The Green Cathedral: Sustainable Development of Amazonia. New York: Oxford University Press, June 2, 1992.

Guimarães, Roberto P. The Ecopolitics of Development in the Third World: Politics and Environment in Brazil. London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., 1991.

Shimabukuro, Yosio Edemir, João Roberto dos Santos, Antonio Roberto Formaggio, Valdete Duarte, and Bernardo Friedrich Theodor Rudorff. “The Brazilian Amazon Monitoring Program: PRODES and DETER Projects.” In Global Forest Monitoring from Earth Observation, edited by Frédéric Achard and Matthew C. Hansen, 153-169. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 7 November 2012. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.1201/b13040/global-forest-monitoring-earth-observation-fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric-achard-matthew-hansen

二、期刊

Abers Neaera, Rebecca, Marília Silva de Oliveira and Ana Karine Pereira, “Inclusive Development and the Asymmetric State: Big Projects and Local Communities in the Brazilian Amazon.” The Journal of Development Studies 53, no. 6 (2017): 857-872. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00220388.2016.1208177?needAccess=true

Albert, Bruce. “Indian Lands, Environmental Policy and Military Geopolitics in the Development of the Brazilian Amazon: The Case of the Yanomami.” Development and Change 23, no. 1 (1992): 35-70. https://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exldoc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_5/b_fdi_31-32/35009.pdf

Amann, Edmund, Werner Baerb, Thomas Trebat, Juan Villa Lora. “Infrastructure and its role in Brazil’s development process.” The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance 62 (November 2016): 66-73. https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S1062976916300540?token=31E793917B2288AAD99D2C8C712BD69E9B183C71CB4ECCE970B3F0CFCEE2A96AE8414D3FCE99393931DF9E0A65ED7013

Assunção, Juliano, and Romero Rocha. “Getting Greener by Going Black: the Effect of Blacklisting Municipalities on Amazon Deforestation.” Environment and Development Economics 24, no. 2 (2019): 115–137. doi:10.1017/S1355770X18000499. 

Aurélio, Marco, Leonardo Santos, and Orleno Marques da Silva Junior. “Spatiotemporal patterns of deforestation in response to the building of the Belo Monte hydroelectric plant in the Amazon basin.” Interciencia 43, no. 2 (February 2018): 80-84. https://www.interciencia.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/80-MARQUES-43_02.pdf

Azevedo Ramos, Claudia, José Natalino Macedo Silva; Frank Merry. “The evolution of Brazilian forest concessions.” Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene 3, no. 48 (2015): 1-8. https://online.ucpress.edu/elementa/article/doi/10.12952/journal.elementa.000048/112761/The-evolution-of-Brazilian-forest-concessionsThe

Barbosa, Luiz C. “The World-System and the Destruction of the Brazilian Amazon Rain Forest.” Fernand Braudel Center Review 16, no. 2 (Spring 1993): 215-240. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/40241255.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A66a8dae0164e66f2246cdc963ee28d08

Carvalho, Fernanda. “The Brazilian position on forests and climate change from 1997 to 2012: from veto to proposition.” Revista Brasileira De Politica Internacional 55 (2012): 144-169. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8c11/e09a3eaecadb0490307212d3547fc535afec.pdf?_ga=2.21742136.2085696913.1632119973-1708358162.1632119973

Lutts, Ralph H. “Chemical Fallout: Rachel Carson's Silent Spring, Radioactive Fallout, and the Environmental Movement.” Environmental Review: ER 9, no. 3 (Autumn 1985): 210-225. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/3984231.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A063dd54cc3dce441fc71c2c76f0b0367

Oren, David C. “Grande Carajas, International Financing Agencies, and Biological Diversity in Southeastern Brazilian Amazonia.” Conservation Biology 1, no. 3 (October 1987): 222–227. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2385878?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents 

Pavone, Ilja R. “The Paris Agreement and the Trump administration: Road to nowhere.” Journal of International Studies 11, no. 1 (2018): 34-49. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324441963_The_Paris_Agreement_and_the_Trump_administration_Road_to_nowhere

Sonter, Laura J., Diego Herrera, Damian J. Barrett, Gillian L. Galford, Chris J. Moran, Britaldo S. Soares-Filho. “Mining drives extensive deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon.” Nature Communications 8, no. 1013 (2017): 1-7. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-00557-w.pdf

Sperling, Eduardo von, “Hydropower in Brazil: overview of positive and negative environmental aspects.” Energy Procedia 18 (2012): 110-118. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S187661021200793X

Stolf, Rubismar, and Ana Paula Rodrigues de Oliveira, “The success of the Brazilian alcohol program (Proálcool)-A decade-by-decade brief history of ethanol in Brazil.” Engenharia Agrícola, Jaboticabal 40, no. 2 (March/April 2020): 243-248. https://www.scielo.br/pdf/eagri/v40n2/1809-4430-eagri-40-02-0243.pdf

West, Thales A.P., and Philip M. Fearnside. “Brazil’s conservation reform and the reduction of deforestation in Amazonia.” Land Use Policy 100 (January 2021): 1-20. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344346291_Brazil's_conservation_reform_and_the_reduction_of_deforestation_in_Amazonia

三、報告

（一）國際組織

FAO. “Forests in the climate change agenda.” Unasylva 246, no. 67 (January 2016): 1-88. http://www.fao.org/3/i6419en/I6419EN.pdf

FAO. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020: Main report. Rome: FAO, 2020. http://www.fao.org/3/ca9825en/CA9825EN.pdf

FAO. State of the World’s Forests 2014: Enhancing the socioeconomic benefits from forests. Rome: FAO, 2014. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3710e.pdf

FAO. State of the World’s Forests 2016: Forests and agriculture: land-use challenges and opportunities. Rome: FAO, 2016. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5588e.pdf

International Labour Organization (ILO). “Article 6: C169 - Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169).” Accessed November 20, 2021. https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C169
Nepstad, Daniel, and João Shimada, Soybeans in the Brazilian Amazon and the Case of the Brazilian Soy Moratorium. Washington DC: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank, December 2018. https://www.profor.info/sites/profor.info/files/Soybeans%20Case%20Study_LEAVES_2018.pdf

Noguerón, Ruth, Paulo Barreto, Carlos Souza JR., Anthony Anderson, Rodney Salomao, and Janice Wiles. Human Pressure on the Brazilian Amazon Forests. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute, 2006. https://files.wri.org/s3fs-public/pdf/human_pressure_amazon.pdf

OECD. OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Brazil 2015. Paris: OECD Environmental Performance Reviews, OECD Publishing, November 4, 2015. https://www.cbd.int/doc/c/757d/e6ee/5c0b072897b58d2af9237a10/mcb-em-2018-01-oecd-submission2-en.pdf

United Nations. Decisions-Kyoto Climate Change Conference. Kyoto, 10 December 1997. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/docs/cop3/l07a01.pdf#page=24

United Nations. Report of the Conference of the Parties on its thirteenth session. Bali, 3-15 December 2007. https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2007/cop13/eng/06a01.pdf

United Nations. Conference on Environment & Development: Agenda 21. Rio de Janerio, 3- 14 June 1992. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/Agenda21.pdf

United Nations. Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment. Stockholm: The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, 5-16 June 1972. 

United Nations. International Trade Statistics Yearbook 2010. New York: Department of Economic and Social Affairs Statistics Division, 2011. https://comtrade.un.org/pb/downloads/2010/VolI2010.pdf

United Nations. International Tropical Timber Agreement. Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, February 2006. https://www.itto.int/direct/topics/topics_pdf_download/topics_id=3363&no=1&disp=inline

United Nations. Paris Agreement. Paris, 2015. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/english_paris_agreement.pdf

United Nations. Report of the Conference of the Parties on its thirteenth session: Decision 1/CP.13 Bali Action Plan. Bali: 14 March 2008. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/docs/2007/cop13/eng/06a01.pdf

United Nations. Report of the United Nations Conference on Environmental and Development: The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. Rio de Janerio, 3-14 June 1992. https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/generalassembly/docs/globalcompact/A_CONF.151_26_Vol.I_Declaration.pdf

United Nations. Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future. 1987. https://www.are.admin.ch/are/en/home/sustainable-development/international-cooperation/2030agenda/un-_-milestones-in-sustainable-development/1987--brundtland-report.html

（二）國際NGO

Amnesty International. From Forest to Farmland: Cattle Illegally Grazed in Brazil’s Amazon Found in JBS’s Supply Chain. London: Amnesty International, 2020. https://www.amnesty.sk/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/From-Forest-To-Farmland_EN_AMR-1926572020.pdf

Charity, S., Dudley, N., Oliveira, D. and S. Stolton. Living Amazon Report 2016: A regional approach to conservation in the Amazon. Brasília and Quito: WWF Living Amazon Initiative, 2016. https://wwfeu.awsassets.panda.org/downloads/wwf_living_amazon__report_2016_mid_res_spreads_1.pdf

Global Witness. Beef, Banks, and the Brazilian Amazon: How Brazilian beef companies and their international financiers greenwash their links to Amazon deforestation. London: Global Witness, December 2020. https://www.globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/forests/beef-banks-and-brazilian-amazon/

Greenpeace. Damning the Amazon: The Risky Business of Hydropower in the Amazon. Amsterdam: Greenpeace International, April 2016. https://cisp.cachefly.net/assets/articles/attachments/59887_greenpeace_damning_the_amazon-the_risky_business_of_hydropower_in_the_amazon-2016.pdf

Greenpeace. Eating up the amazon. Amsterdam: Greenpeace International, April 2006. https://reporterbrasil.org.br/documentos/amazonsoya.pdf

Greenpeace. How JBS is still slaughtering the Amazon. Amsterdam: Greenpeace International, August 2020. https://www.greenpeace.org/static/planet4-international-stateless/2020/08/60e2cd00-greenpeace_stillslaughtering_pages-1.pdf

Greenpeace. Slaughter the amazon. Amsterdam: Greenpeace International, June 2009. https://www.greenpeace.org/usa/wp-content/uploads/legacy/Global/usa/planet3/PDFs/slaughtering-the-amazon-part-1.pdf

Machado, Frederico. and Kate Anderson, Brazil’s New Forest Code: a guide for decision-makers in supply chains and governments. Brasília: WWF, 2016.
https://d3nehc6yl9qzo4.cloudfront.net/downloads/wwf_brazils_new_forest_code_guide.pdf

WWF. Deforestation fronts: Drivers and responses in a changing world. Switzerland: WWF, 2021. https://wwfint.awsassets.panda.org/downloads/deforestation_fronts___drivers_and_responses_in_a_changing_world___full_report_1.pdf

（三）巴西NGO 

Amazon Institute of People and the Environment (IMAZON). Activity Report 2014. Belém: Imazon, November 2015. https://imazon.org.br/PDFimazon/Ingles/annual_reports/ImazonActivityReport2014.pdf
Amazon Institute of People and the Environment (IMAZON). Activity Report 2016. Belém: Imazon, November 2017. https://imazon.org.br/PDFimazon/Ingles/annual_reports/Annual%20Report%202016.pdf

RAISG. Amazonia Bajo Presión 2020. São Paulo: Instituto Socioambienta, 2020. https://www.amazoniasocioambiental.org/en/maps/#!/areas

RAISG. Deforestation in the Amazonia (1970-2013). São Paulo: Instituto Socioambienta, 2015. https://www.amazoniasocioambiental.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Deforestation_in_the_Amazonia1970-2013.pdf

（四）巴西政府

Governo Do Estado Do Amazonas. Investors’s guide of Manaus free trade zone. Manaus, 2017. 
http://www.fieam.org.br/fieam/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2017/07/Investors-
Guide-of-Manaus-Free-Trade-Zone-MAIO-2017.pdf

Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatistica. “Municipal Livestock Production 2011-2016.” Accessed April 2, 2021. https://www.ibge.gov.br/en/statistics/economic/agriculture-forestry-and-fishing/17353-municipal-livestock-production.html?=&t=download

Ministério do Meio Ambiente. “Brazil’s Nationally Determined Contribution.” Accessed Sep 22, 2021. https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/ndcstaging/PublishedDocuments/Brazil%20First/BRAZIL%20iNDC%20english%20FINAL.pdf

Ministério do Meio Ambiente. “Painel unidades de conservação brasileiras.” Accessed May 20, 2021. https://app.powerbi.com/view?r=eyJrIjoiYjBiYzFiMWMtZTNkMS00ODk0LWI1OGItMDQ0NmUzNTQ4NzE4IiwidCI6IjM5NTdhMzY3LTZkMzgtNGMxZi1hNGJhLTMzZThmM2M1NTBlNyJ9

Ministério do Meio Ambiente. “Plano Nacional sobre Mudança do Clima.” Accessed Sep 21, 2021. https://antigo.mma.gov.br/clima/politica-nacional-sobre-mudanca-do-clima/plano-nacional-sobre-mudanca-do-clima.html

Presidência da República Casa Civil Subchefia para Assuntos Jurídicos. “LEI No 9.985.” Last modified July 18, 2000. http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/html/bra24591.htm

Presidência da República Casa Civil. “Institui a Política Nacional sobre Mudança do Clima - PNMC e dá outras providências.” Last modified September 15, 2010. https://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2007-2010/2009/lei/l12187.htm

Terra Brasilis. “PRODES (Desmatamento).” Accessed Sep 30, 2021. http://terrabrasilis.dpi.inpe.br/app/dashboard/deforestation/biomes/legal_amazon/rates

Terra Brasilis. “Programa Despoluição de Bacias Hidrográficas (PRODES).” Last updated December 22, 2021. http://terrabrasilis.dpi.inpe.br/app/dashboard/deforestation/biomes/legal_amazon/rates 

The Brazilian Association of Vegetable Oil Industries (ABIOVE). Soy Moratorium. São Paulo, 2018. https://abiove.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Soy-Moratorium-Report-2018.pdf

The Brazilian Biodiversity Fund (FUNBIO). “Programas e Projetos: ARPA Program Community Projects.” Accessed Nov. 10, 2021. https://www.funbio.org.br/en/programas_e_projetos/arpa-program/community-projects/?id=23086&subproject=1

The Brazilian Biodiversity Fund (FUNBIO). The Amazon Region Protected Areas Program. Brasília: 3rd GEF-7 Replenishment Meeting, January 23-25, 2018. https://www.thegef.org/sites/default/files/publications/Arpa_GEF%202018_22.01.18-v2.pdf

The Brazilian Development Bank (BNDES). Annual Report 2018. Brasília: The Communication Department of the Comunication Division of BNDES. http://www.amazonfund.gov.br/export/sites/default/en/.galleries/documentos/rafa/RAFA_2018_en.pdf
四、其他網路資料

Amazon Aid Foundation. “The Global Importance of Amazon Natural Resources.” Last modified, January 21, 2016. https://amazonaid.org/global-importance-amazon-natural-resources/

Anache, Bernardo, Heliandro Torres Maia, Leandro Beser, and Monika Röper. Effectiveness Evaluation Report: Socioenvironmental Management in Municipalities of Pará. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit, GIZ；Banco Nacional de Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social, BNDES, June 2017.

BBC. “Brazil approves start of Belo Monte dam construction.” Last modified January 27, 2011. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-12295662

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