本文研究以口說促進寫作的課堂活動對 EFL 大學生論述文寫作表現的有效性。利用口語促進寫作是基於說寫合併這一概念，包含說寫發展模型(Kroll, 1981))，單向和多向學習模型(Stotsky, 1982)，以及從社會文化角度解釋的口說在學習中的中介角色(Appel & Lantolf, 1994; Lantolf, 2006)。議論是連接說與寫的最佳場域，這是因為連貫的議論論述或議論文要求外語學習者俱有思考或形成想法的能力，並掌握足夠的語言工具來支持他的表達。通過議論說、寫任務，本研究旨在測試說寫合併在課堂中的應用，並檢驗以說促寫活動對於大學生論述文寫作的影響。134 名 EFL 大學生參加了大二英語課程，並被分為三個班級，實驗組參與了說寫活動。學生們在前測和後測中寫作議論文並回答問卷。結果表明，在議論文寫作中，連貫性、觀點形成和修辭思維方面，兩個口語班的表現皆優於對照組。專注於觀點形成口說活動的實驗組比專注於使用銜接工具的實驗組表現得更好。在議論文寫作中銜接工具的使用方面，也發現了類似的結果。問卷結果進一步揭示了兩個由說促寫活動的班級也表現出更積極的學習態度。這項研究的結果對於將口語活動融入寫作教學具有極其積極的意義。同時也呼籲後續更多的研究加入以探索說寫合併在不同口語和寫作體裁中的應用，並通過多元的研究方法為學習者如何通過有意義的社交互動發展語言提供更多的經驗證據。

The present study investigated the effectiveness of speaking-to-write activities on EFL college students’ writing performances. Using speaking to promote writing is based on theoretical discussions of speaking-writing connections, including Kroll’s (1981) developmental model, the two directional models (Stotsky, 1982), and the sociocutural view of the mediating role of speaking in learning (Appel & Lantolf, 1994; Lantolf, 2006). Argumentation provides a common ground where speaking and writing are seen as a thinking and meaning-making process. Coherent argumentative speech or essays require the foreign language learner's ability to think or form ideas and a command of certain linguistic tools to support his expressions. Through argumentative tasks, this study set out to test the application of speaking-writing connections in the classroom, using speaking activities to promote writing. 134 EFL college students, largely B1 students, were enrolled in sophomore English courses and were divided into three classes, treated with or without 
speaking-to-write activities. They wrote essays and responded to questionnaires in the pre and posttests. The result showed that in terms of their performances in coherence, operationalized as idea formation and rhetorical thinking, the two speaking classes outperformed the control class. The speaking class that focused on idea formation had even better performance than that of the speaking class that focused on the use of cohesive ties. Similar results were found in their performances in cohesion, operationalized as the use of cohesive ties. The results of the questionnaires further disclosed the two speaking classes demonstrated more positive learning attitudes. The results of this study have extremely positive implications for integrating speaking activities in writing instruction. More research is called for to join and experiment on speaking-writing connections in different speaking and writing genres and through alternative methodologies to provide more empirical evidence on how learners develop language through meaningful social interactions.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS	i
CHINESE ABSTRACT	iii
ENGLISH ABSTRACT	iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS	vi
LIST OF FIGURES	ix
LIST OF TABLES 	x
CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Introduction	1
    1.1 Background	1
    1.2 Purpose of the Study	5
    1.3 Research Questions	7
    1.4 Significance of the Study	7
Chapter 2 Literature Review	9
    2.1 Theoretical Discussions of Speaking-Writing Connections	9
 2.1.1 Emergence of Speaking-writing Connections in L1 and L2	9
 2.1.2 A Unidirectional Speaking-to-write Model vs. a Multi-directional Speaking/Reading-to-write Model	11
 2.1.3 Cognitive and Sociocultural Supports of Speaking-writing Connections	16
 2.1.4 A Sociocultural Perspective: the Mediating Role of Speaking in Language Learning....	20
         2.1.5 Three Development Routes with ESL/EFL Learners	23
    2.2 To Put Speaking-writing Connections in Practice	27
         2.2.1 Argumentation	27
         2.2.2 Argumentative Speaking and Writing	34
         2.2.3 Using Argumentative Speaking to Promote Argumentative Writing	36
         2.2.4 Using Speaking Activities to Create More Communicative and Engaging 
Classrooms	38
    2.3  Assessing Argumentative Speaking and Writing	39
         2.3.1 Argumentative Speaking and Writing Tasks in Major Tests	..39
         2.3.2 Wash-back: Teaching and Learning Through Argumentative Speaking and Writing Tasks	42
    2.4  Coherence and Cohesion in the Assessment	43
         2.4.1 An Early Debate: a Schema-Theoretical Criticism of the Cohesion Theory	43
         2.4.2 The Cohesion Theory: the Use of Cohesive Ties Leads to Coherence 	44
         2.4.3 Challenge: Can the Mere Presence of Cohesive Ties Create Coherence?  	45
2.5 Coherence and Cohesion in Language Teaching	49
         2.5.1 Promoting Coherence: Critical Thinking (CT)	51
         2.5.2 Promoting Coherence: Contrastive Rhetoric (CR)	56
         2.5.3 Promoting Cohesion: The Use of Cohesive Devices	66
2.6 Assessing Argumentative Essays: Coherence and Cohesion 	70
         2.6.1 Brown’s Categories for Evaluating Writing	71
         2.6.2 Baker’s Framework of English Argumentative Essays	73
Chapter 3 Methodology	77
     3.1 Context	77
     3.2 The Design of the Speaking-to-write Activities and the Research Questions	78
          3.2.1 Speaking-to-write Activities Focusing on Idea Formation	78
          3.2.2 Speaking-to-write Activities Focusing on the Use of Cohesive Ties 	80
     3.3 Assessing Coherence and Cohesion in This Study	82
       3.3.1 Assessing Coherence in This Study	82
        3.3.2 Assessing Cohesion in This Study	86
     3.4 Participants	88
     3.5 Treatment	91
     3.6 Procedure	92
     3.7 Instruments	94
        3.7.1 Argumentative Essays and Topic Choices 	94
        3.7.2 The Pre and Post Questionnaires 	95
     3.8 Data Collection and Analysis 	96
        3.8.1 The Questionnaires	97
        3.8.2 The Essays	98
Chapter 4 Results	100
     4.1 Research Question 1	100
     4.2 Research Question 2	111
     4.3 Research Question 3	114
Chapter 5 Discussions	134
     5.1 Speaking-to-write Activities 	134
     5.2 Common Ground in Argumentative Speech and Essays: Coherence and Cohesion	138
     5.3 Speaking-to-Write Activities and the Participants’ Perceptions	145
Chapter 6 Conclusion	148
References	151
Appendix A: Essay Prompts	179
Appendix B: Questionnaires	180




LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. The Unidirectional Model of Speaking and Writing  	12
Figure 2. The Multi-directional Model of Speaking and Writing 	14
Figure 3. Toulmin’s Model of Argumentation	28
Figure 4. Categories for Evaluating Writing 	72
Figure 5. Baker’s Keyhole Diagram of the Rhetorical Structure	74
Figure 6. Results of Placement of the Thesis Statement	105
Figure 7. Results of Presence of the Topic Sentences 	108
Figure 8. Results of Strength of the Topic Sentences 	110
Figure 9. The Skill the Participants Most Wanted to Improve	115
Figure 10. The Participants’ Perceptions of Speaking and Writing 	118
Figure 11. The Participants’ Perceptions of the Effectiveness of the Treatments 	120
Figure 12. The Participants’ Perceptions of the Most Affected Aspect	122
Figure 13. The Sociocultural Triangle of Mediation	135


LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. The Three Developing Routes in ESL/EFL Speaking and Writing Proficiency	25
Table 2. Four Learning Mechanisms of Arguing-to-learn	32
Table 3. Learning-to-argue/Learning-to-write and Arguing-to-learn/writing-to-learn	33
Table 4. Writing Tasks in TOEFL iBT and IELTS	40
Table 5. Speaking tasks in TOEFL iBT and IELTS	41
Table 6. Coherence, Cohesive Ties and Critical/rhetorical Thinking in a Text	48
Table 7. Core Elements of Critical Thinking (CT) and Contrastive Rhetoric (CR)....	57
Table 8. Comparing the English Rhetorical Organization and the Oriental Style	59
Table 9. Malay University Students’ Rhetorical Choices in Thesis Placement in Argumentative Writing 	61
Table l0. Filipino Pre-service Teachers’ Rhetorical Choices in Thesis Placement in Argumentative Writing 	62
Table 11. Definitions of Coherence and Cohesion in Literature	70
Table 12. Placement of the Thesis Statement 	83
Table 13. Presence of the Topic Sentence	84
Table 14. Strength of the Topic Sentences	85
Table 15. Presence of Counterargument	86
Table 16. Operationalizing Cohesion	88
Table 17. Participants in Number	90
Table 18. Participant Background	90
Table 19. Description of the Speaking-to-write Activities 	91
Table 20. Procedure	92
Table 21. Inter-rater Reliability of the Questionnaires	97
Table 22. Scoring and Checking List of the Essays	98
Table 23. Descriptive Statistics of Valid Cases in Research Question1	101
Table 24. Paired t Test of the Pre and Post Essays of Coherence Scores 	101
Table 25. Results of Factor Analysis of the Sample Size	102
Table 26. Results of One-way ANOVA Test of Coherence Scores	102
Table 27. Results of the Post Hoc Test  	103
Table 28. Results of Placement of the Thesis Statement 	104
Table 29. Results of Presence of the Topic Sentences	107
Table 30. Results of Strength of the Topic Sentences 	109
Table 31. Results of Presence of Counterargument 	111
Table 32. Descriptive Statistics of Valid Cases in Research Question 2	112
Table 33. Paired t Test of the Pre and Post-Essay Cohesion Scores	112
Table 34. Results of One-way ANOVA Test of Cohesion Scores 	113
Table 35. The Skill that the Participants Most Wanted to Improve	115
Table 36. The Participants’ Perceptions of Speaking and Writing	117
Table 37. The Participants’ Perceptions of the Effectiveness of the Treatments 	119
Table 38. The Participants’ Perceptions of the Most Affected Aspect 	121
Table 39. The Participants’ Perceptions of the Difficulty Level of Speaking and Writing	124
Table 40. The Participants’ Perceptions of Their Own Speaking and Writing 	125
Table 41. Results of Paired t and ANOVA Tests of the Participants’ Perceptions of Speaking-wiring Connections 	127
Table 42.  Benefits of the Speaking Activities 	129
Table 43. Limitations of the Speaking Activities	130

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