隨著跨國婚姻及工作移民快速成長，台灣的語言地景（LL）自1990年代後期有了很大變化，從單語中文，中英雙語轉變為多語已呈現在公共標牌上。台灣是亞洲國家中獨特的多語言和多文化社會，由各種自上而下和自下而上的組織實施空前普及的多語標牌如:中文、英文、日文、韓文和新住民語言（如:越南語、印尼語、泰語和菲律賓語）證明了這一點。即使存在這種多語言和多文化的事實，台灣的語言地景卻很少受到研究關注。因此，本論文的目的係採民族誌的研究方法，來探討台灣桃園地區多語地景之變化。

在民族誌研究中，我借鑒了 Scollon 和 Scollon (2003) 的地方符號框架理論和 Backhaus (2007) 的多語翻譯及音譯類型概念，來探討桃園地區多語招牌在視覺和材質上如何呈現。我也研究語言政策及計畫與地理符號學和語言景觀之間的多方面交叉分析。本研究具體探討以下四個研究問題：(一)多語地景在台灣桃園市是如何分佈？(二)多語地景是如何實施和管理？誰是負責管理標牌的機構，而這些自上而下和自下而上的機構製作了哪些標牌？(三)多語地景在符碼優先及多語翻譯與音譯類型是如何呈現？(四)社區成員如何看待多語地景？本論文研究範圍主要包含以下地點：(1)桃園後站商圈，(2)中平商圈，(3)忠貞商圈，(4)台灣桃園國際機場，以及中壢和桃園兩大市區購物中心，此外，我也一併分析公共標牌路牌、街牌、大眾運輸系統和政府辦公大樓。

本研究於2017年至2022年間進行視野調查，包括對研究地點的初步探索到後續參訪、招募參與者及更多資料收集。主要資料收集發生在2020年至2021年之間，包含自上而下和自下而上的2,292個標牌、40位社區成員進行半結構式訪談以及針對許多特定店家做非正式訪談。在整個田野調查中，我也進行了非參與觀察，大量實地紀錄及文獻研究。

本研究結果顯示國家語言政策與公共標牌之間的複雜關係。雖然中英文在自上而下和自下而上的標語中，已經在視覺上突顯，但新來的東南亞移民連同他們的母語，呈現在公共標牌也已創造了台灣多語地景的新變化。此研究結果顯示自上而下和自下而上機構在標牌上，皆使用國家語言中文作為優先符碼，及盛行的外語英文作為第二優先符碼。總體而言，官方的標牌使用的材料和顏色較一致，私人標牌比官方的標牌更加多樣化和創造性。有關多語標牌上呈現的翻譯與音譯訊息，於研究中發現，大多數自上而下的標牌，傾向於在不同語言上顯示相同的訊息，而自下而上的標牌，傾向於在不同語言上給予部分翻譯或音譯，或顯示完全不相同的訊息。此外，研究結果也顯示大多數本地居民和新住民支持台灣的多語地景，認為多語地景可助於台灣社會在經濟、多元文化和國際上的發展。因此，桃園市的多語地景，不僅反映了本市日益增長的民族和文化多樣性，也反映了市政府努力建立一個有凝聚力的社會，以及為台灣不同民族和外國遊客營造一個友善的國際環境。

此多語地景的民族誌研究，可提供課堂語言教學和學習作為補充教材運用，使學生和教師能更了解台灣當今多語言和多文化的實際狀況。 多語地景還可用於在不同的教育環境中，教授語言分層結構和變異的複雜性，以及雙語和多語問題。因此，桃園市多語地景在視覺效果上，可提供台灣學生、教師和其他社區成員，更了解台灣現今的社會結構、鞏固他們的語言和文化鑑賞力、拓寬他們的世界觀，並成為二十一世紀的全球公民。

未來研究方向可進一步探討台灣其他縣市的多語地景，面臨國家語言政策在公共標牌推動英語和東南亞新住民語言等外國主導語言的情況下，要如何保持當地語言身份也值得再進一步深入研究。

The linguistic landscape (LL) in Taiwan has changed dramatically since the late 1990s, as a result of the rapid increase of intermarriage with immigrants due to work-related and cross-border migration. This transformation is visible in Taiwan’s public signage, which has shifted from monolingual Chinese and bilingual Chinese-English to multilingual signs in the public domain. Taiwan is a unique multilingual and multicultural society among Asian countries, as evidenced by the unprecedented proliferation of multilingual signage in Chinese, English, Japanese, Korean, and new immigrant languages such as Vietnamese, Indonesian, Thai, and Tagalog, created and regulated by a variety of top-down and bottom-up organizations. Despite this multilingual and multicultural reality, Taiwan’s LL has received little research attention. Therefore, the purpose of this dissertation is to conduct an ethnographic investigation into the changing dynamics of Taiwan’s multilingual linguistic landscape (MLL) in Taoyuan City.

In this ethnographic study, I examined how the multilingual signs are visually and materially displayed in the MLL in Taoyuan City, drawing on Scollon & Scollon’s (2003) framework of place semiotics and Backhaus’s (2007) concept of multilingual writing types. I also explored the multifaceted intersections between language policy and planning, geosemiotics, and linguistic landscape. This research study specifically addresses the following four questions: (1) How is the MLL distributed in Taoyuan City, Taiwan? (2) How is the MLL implemented and regulated? Who are the agents and agencies responsible for the signs, and what kinds of signs have they created and implemented from the top-down and bottom-up? (3) How is the diversity of the MLL manifested in terms of code preference and multilingual writing types? and (4) How do community members perceive the MLL? To answer these questions, the research was carried out primarily in the following locations: (1) the Taoyuan Rear Station Shopping District, (2) the Zhongping Shopping District, (3) the Zhongzhen Shopping District, and (4) the Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport, as well as the two largest urban shopping centers in Zhongli and Taoyuan Districts. I also analyzed public signage on roads, streets, public transportation systems, and government buildings in the city.

Fieldwork was conducted between 2017 and 2022, including the initial explorations of the research sites and follow-up visits to recruit participants and obtain additional data. The primary data collection took place between 2020 and 2021. I collected and categorized a total of 2,292 top-down and bottom-up signs. I also conducted semi-structured interviews with 40 community members and had informal conversations with many shop owners in Taoyuan City as part of the study. Throughout the field research, I engaged in non-participant observation in the selected research sites, took copious fieldnotes, and conducted archival research. 

The findings shed light on the complex relationship between national language policy and public signage in Taoyuan City. While Chinese and English have been visually prominent in both top-down and bottom-up signs, the new arrival of SEA immigrants, along with their native languages displayed in the public sphere, has created a new dynamic in Taiwan’s MLL. The findings show that both top-down and bottom-up organizations are using the national language, Chinese, as the preferred code and English, the most popular and prestigious foreign language, as the secondary code on public signage. Overall, bottom-up signs were found to be more diverse and creative than top-down signs, while top-down signs appeared to use more consistent materials and colors. In terms of information displayed on the MLL, this study discovered that most top-down signs tended to display the same information in multiple languages, whereas bottom-up signs tended to display partial translations or transliterations, or entirely different information in multiple languages. Additionally, this study reveals that the majority of local residents (LRs) and new immigrants (NIs) support the MLL, believing it can benefit Taiwanese society economically, multiculturally, and internationally. In this way, Taoyuan City’s MLL reflects not only the city’s growing ethnic and cultural diversity, but also the city government’s robust efforts to build a cohesive society and a welcoming international environment for Taiwan’s diverse ethnic groups, as well as foreign visitors.
 
Furthermore, this ethnographic study of Taoyuan City’s MLL can generate supplemental materials for language teaching and learning in the classroom, exposing students and teachers to Taiwan’s present-day multilingual and pluricultural reality. The MLL can also be used to teach the complexities of linguistic hierarchies and variation, as well as issues of bilingualism and multilingualism, in diverse educational settings. Therefore, the visual display of the MLL in Taoyuan City serves as an important resource for Taiwanese students, teachers, and other community members seeking to better understand the social structure of Taiwanese society, solidify their language and cultural appreciation, and broaden their worldviews in order to become global citizens in the twenty-first century. 

Further research into the MLL in other Taiwanese cities and counties is needed, as is further discussion about the maintenance of local linguistic identities in the face of the presence of foreign dominant languages, such as English, and Southeast Asian (SEA) immigrant languages promoted by Taiwan’s national language policy in the public sphere.

Table of Contents
List of Abbreviations	i
List of Tables	ii
List of Figures	iii
List of Images	iv
Chapter 1: Introduction	1
Significance and Implications of the Study	9
Research Questions	9
Researcher’s Linguistic Background and Positionality	11
Chapter 2: Sociohistorical and Sociolinguistic Overview of Taiwan	19
Where is Taiwan?	19
Prehistory and Dutch and Spanish Colonization (1624-1662)	22
The Zheng Regime (1662-1683)	23
The Qing Dynasty (1683-1895)	24
Japanese Colonization (1895-1945)	25
Kuomintang Rule (1945-2000)	26
From Monolingualism to Multilingualism (2000-present)	28
English Language Policy and Planning	29
Language Policy and Planning in SEA New Immigrant Languages	32
Conclusion	33
Chapter 3: Literature Review	35
Language Policy and Planning 	35
Top-down and Bottom-up Language Policy and Planning	42
The Field of Linguistic Landscape	45
Linguistic Landscape and Language Policy and Planning	51
Linguistic Landscape and Multilingualism	58
Linguistic Landscape and Semiotics/Geosemiotics	62
The Linguistic Landscape in Taiwan	70
Conclusion	75
Chapter 4: Methodology	77
Introduction	77
Theoretical Framework	77
Why Ethnography?	83
Why Taoyuan City?	86
Background Information about Research Sites	90
Research Site One: Taoyuan Rear Station Shopping District	91
Historical Background of Taoyuan Rear Station before the 1990s	92
Research Site Two: Zhongping Shopping District	93
Research Site Three: Zhongzhen Shopping District	96
Zhongzhen Market	97
Longgang Mosque	99
Research Site Four: The Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport	101
Airport Terminals 1 and 2	102
Taoyuan Airport Mass Rapid Transit System (MRT)	104
Research Questions	107
Research Methods and Data Collection	108
Data Collection Procedures	111
The Interview Process	112
Research Participants	114
Questionnaire Design	120
Data Analysis	120
Image Analysis from Geosemiotic Approach	121
Interview Data Analysis	122
Triangulation	124
Validity and Reliability	126
Conclusion	128
Chapter 5: Findings I - Distribution of the Multilingual Linguistic Landscape in Taoyuan City, Taiwan	130
Research Site One: Taoyuan HouZhan Shopping District	131
Research Site Two: Zhongping Shopping District	143
Research Site Three: Zhongzhen Shopping District	158
The Zhongzhen Market	159
The Longgang Mosque	172
Research Site Four: The Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport	181
Linguistic Landscape at the Airport	184
Multilingual Linguistic Landscape at the Airport Terminals 1 and 2	186
Multilingual Linguistic Landscape at the Airport MRT Terminals 1 and 2	194
Conclusion	202
Chapter 6: Findings II - Regulation and Implementation of the Multilingual Linguistic Landscape in Taoyuan City, Taiwan	206
Data Collection	207
Regulations on Public Signs in Taoyuan City	208
The Implementation of Public Signs in Taoyuan City	211
Public Road Signs and Street Names	214
Signage on Government Buildings and Government Units	219
Signage on Public Transportation Units	226
The Implementation of Private Signs in Taoyuan City	234
Types of Languages Used on Private Shop Signs	237
Monolingual Private Shop Signs	239
Bilingual Private Shop Signs	243
Multilingual Private Shop Signs	248
Geosemiotics Features of Private Shop Signs in the City	253
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………..259
Chapter 7: Findings III - Code Preference and Multilingual Writing Types in the Multilingual Linguistic Landscape in Taoyuan City, Taiwan	261
Code Preference	261
Multilingual Writing Types	262
Code Preference and Multilingual Writing Types in Top-Down Signs	266
Chinese as Preferred Code in Public Signs	270
Multilingual Writing Types	272
Non-Chinese as Preferred Code on Public Signs	275
Code Preference and Multilingual Writing Types in Bottom-Up Signs	281
Bilingual Bottom-Up Signs	282
Multilingual Bottom-Up Signs	290
Chinese and Non-Chinese Preferred Codes………………………………………………301
Conclusion	304
Chapter 8: Findings IV - Community Members’ Perceptions of the Multilingual Linguistic Landscape in Taoyuan City, Taiwan	307
General Perceptions of the Multilingual Linguistic Landscape in Taiwan	309
Acceptance and Integration	309
Inclusion and Respect	314
Benefits of the Multilingual Linguistic Landscape in Taiwan	324
Management and Economic Development	325
Multiculturalism and Internationalism	334
Conclusion	338
Chapter 9: Discussion	340
Linguistic Landscape Distribution	340
Language Policy and planning and Linguistic Landscape	349
Geosemiotic Features in Linguistic Landscape	358
Multilingual Writing Types	367
Community Members’ Perceptions of Immigrant Languages	370
Conclusion	378
Chapter 10 : Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations	381
Implications for Research	389
Implication for Language Teaching and Learning	391
Limitations and Future Directions	395
Conclusion	396
References	398
Appendix A	434
Appendix B	435
Appendix C	436
Appendix D	438

  

List of Abbreviations

LL		Linguistic Landscape
LPP		Language Policy and Planning
LRs		Local Residents
MLL		Multilingual Linguistic Landscape
MOE		Ministry of Education
MRT		Mass Rapid Transit
MWs		Migrant Workers
NIs		New Immigrants
SEA		Southeast Asian
SEALs		Southeast Asian Languages
TNICH		Taoyuan New Immigrants Culture Hall
  

List of Tables
Table 2.1: Local Languages as a Subjects of Study in Elementary Schools in Taiwan
Table 4.1: Participant Profiles of Local Residents
Table 4.2: Participant Profiles of New Immigrants
Table 4.3: Data Collection and Analysis Procedures
Table 5.1: Multilingual Linguistic Landscape in the Taoyuan Houzhan Shopping District
Table 5.2: Multilingual Linguistic Landscape in the Zhongping Shopping District
Table 5.3: Multilingual Linguistic Landscape in the Zhongzhen Traditional Market
Table 5.4: Multilingual Linguistic Landscape in the Longgang Mosque
Table 5.5: Multilingual Linguistic Landscape at Airport Terminals 1 and 2
Table 5.6: Multilingual Linguistic Landscape at MRT Station Terminals 1 and 2
Table 6.1: Bilingual Chinese-English Road Signs and Street Names in Taoyuan City
Table 6.2: Signs in Taoyuan and Zhongli Train Stations
Table 6.3: Number of Languages on Signs in Urban Shopping Centers in Taoyuan City
Table 7.1: Multilingual Signs Classified According to Code Preference
Table 7.2: Monophonic Signs (N=240)
Table 7.3: Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up Multilingual Signs (N=1767)
Table 7.4: Languages Used on Bilingual and Multilingual Top-Down Signs
Table 7.5: Code Preference on Top-Down Multilingual Signs
Table 7.6: Bilingual Homophonic and Mixed Signs
Table 7.7: Non-Chinese in Preferred Positions on Homophonic and Mixed Signs
Table 7.8: Types of Bottom-Up Multilingual Signs
Table 7.9: Languages Used on Bilingual Bottom-Up Signs
Table 7.10: Languages Used on Multilingual Bottom-Up Signs
Table 7.11: Occurrence of Languages on Bottom-Up Multilingual Signs
Table 7.12: Chinese and Non-Chinese Preferred Code
Table 7.13: Homophonic, Mixed, and Polyphonic Signs in Bottom-Up Signs
  

List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Percentage of Migrant Workers in Taiwanese Cities, 2019
Figure 2.1: Map of Taiwan
Figure 4.1: Map of Taoyuan City
Figure 4.2: Districts and Populations in Taoyuan City
Figure 4.3: Airport MRT Line
Figure 5.1: Map of Taoyuan Houzhen Shopping District
Figure 5.2: Percentage of Languages Appearing on Signs in Taoyuan Houzhan Shopping
            District
Figure 5.3: Monolingual Format Signs in Taoyuan Houzhan Shopping District
Figure 5.4: Bilingual Format Signs in Taoyuan Houzhan Shopping District
Figure 5.5: Multilingual Format Signs in Taoyuan Houzhan Shopping District
Figure 5.6: Map of Zhongping Shopping District
Figure 5.7: Percentage of Languages Appearing on Signs in Zhongping Shopping District
Figure 5.8: Monolingual Format Signs in Zhongping Shopping District
Figure 5.9: Bilingual Format Signs in Zhongping Shopping District
Figure 5.10: Multilingual Format Signs in Zhongping Shopping District
Figure 5.11: Map of Zhongzhen Market
Figure 5.12: Percentage of Languages Appearing on Signs in Zhongzhen Traditional
             Market
Figure 5.13: Monolingual Format Signs in Zhongzhen Traditional Market
Figure 5.14: Bilingual Format Signs in Zhongzhen Traditional Market
Figure 5.15: Multilingual Format Signs in Zhongzhen Traditional Market
Figure 5.16: Percentage of Languages Appearing in Longgang Mosque
Figure 5.17: Monolingual Format Signs in Longgang Mosque
Figure 5.18: Bilingual Format Signs in Longgang Mosque
Figure 5.19: Multilingual Format Signs in Longgang Mosque
Figure 5.20: Signage in Terminals 1 and 2
Figure 5.21: Foreign Languages Appearing on Signs in Taiwan Taoyuan International
             Airport
Figure 5.22: Signage at Airport MRT Stations Terminals 1 and 2
Figure 5.23: Multilingual Signs at Airport MRT Stations Terminals 1 and 2
Figure 6.1: Map of Taoyuan Urban Shopping Center
Figure 6.2: Map of Zhongli Urban shopping center

  

Lists of Images
Image 1.1: Taoyuan New Immigrants Culture Hall
Image 1.2: ‘Ministry of Education’ Sign in Nine Languages
Image 1.3: Bilingual Sign in Government Building
Image 1.4: Bilingual Sign on Front Door of Elementary School
Image 1.5: Bilingual Road Name
Image 1.6: Bilingual Shop Store Sign
Image 1.7: Multilingual Sign at the Train Station
Image 1.8: Multilingual Sign in Indonesian Grocery Store
Image 3.1: ‘Traffic Light out of Order’ Sign
Image 4.1: Left Side of Taoyuan Rear Station
Image 4.2: Right Side of Taoyuan Rear Station
Image 4.3: Zhongping Shopping District
Image 4.4: Multilingual Sign at the Bank
Image 4.5: Multilingual Public Notice in Zhongping Shopping District
Image 4.6: Zhongzhen Market
Image 4.7: Multilingual Sign in Zhongzhen Market
Image 4.8: Longgang Mosque
Image 4.9: Front Door of Longgang Mosque
Image 4.10: Multilingual Sign in Longgang Mosque
Image 4.11: Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport
Image 4.12: Bilingual Sign at the Airport
Image 4.13: Multilingual Sign at the Airport Bank Counter
Image 4.14: Quadrilingual Sign at Taoyuan Airport MRT Huanbei Station
Image 4.15: Quadrilingual Sign in MRT Carriage
Image 4.16: Taoyuan New Immigrants Culture Hall
Image 5.1: Taoyuan Houzhen Shopping District
Image 5.2: Monolingual Vietnamese Sign
Image 5.3: Vietnamese-Indonesian Shop Sign
Image 5.4: Vietnamese-Chinese Shop Sign
Image 5.5: Thai-Chinese-English Shop Sign
Image 5.6: Chinese-Vietnamese-Indonesian-Thai-English Shop Sign
Image 5.7: Thai Vertical Text
Image 5.8: Indonesian Vertical Text
Image 5.9: Vietnamese Vertical Text
Image 5.10: Sidewalk in Front of Store 

Image 5.11: Multilingual Public Announcement on Zhongping Road
Image 5.12: Monolingual Thai Sign
Image 5.13: Bilingual Vietnamese-Chinese Sign
Image 5.14: Bilingual Thai-English Sign
Image 5.15: Multilingual Chinese-English-Thai Sign
Image 5.16: Multilingual Chinese-English-Vietnamese-Thai Sign
Image 5.17: Multilingual Thai-Chinese-English Sign
Image 5.18: Multilingual Tagalog-Indonesian-Vietnamese
Image 5.19: Movable Sign in Zhongzhen Market
Image 5.20: Monolingual Indonesian Sign
Image 5.21: Monolingual Vietnamese Sign
Image 5.22: Monolingual Indonesian Sign
Image 5.23: Bilingual Chinese-Indonesian Sign
Image 5.24: Bilingual Arabic-Chinese Sign
Image 5.25: Multilingual Thai-Chinese-Vietnamese Sign
Image 5.26: Multilingual Indonesian-Chinese-Arabic-English Sign
Image 5.27: Monolingual Arabic Sign
Image 5.28: Monolingual Indonesian Sign
Image 5.29: Bilingual Arabic-Chinese Sign
Image 5.30: Bilingual Chinese-Indonesian Sign
Image 5.31: Multilingual Chinese-Arabic-English-Indonesian Sign
Image 5.32: Multilingual Arabic-English-Chinese Sign
Image 5.33: Flight Cancelled During Pandemic in Terminal 1
Image 5.34: Terminal 2 During COVID-19 Outbreak
Image 5.35: Floor Introduction Terminal 1
Image 5.36: Floor Introduction Terminal 2
Image 5.37: Bilingual Chinese-English Shop Sign
Image 5.38: Trilingual Chinese-English-Japanese Sign
Image 5.39: Quadrilingual Chinese-English-Japanese-Korean Sign
Image 5.40: Multilingual Public Sign in Terminal 1
Image 5.41: Multilingual Private Sign in Terminal 2
Image 5.42: Quadrilingual Sign at Airport MRT Station Entrance
Image 5.43: Quadrilingual Sign at Airport MRT Station
Image 5.44: Quadrilingual Sign in Airport MRT Terminal 2
Image 5.45: Quadrilingual Sign in Airport MRT Terminal 1
Image 5.46: Multilingual Private Sign at Airport MRT Station
Image 5.47: Multilingual Public Sign at Airport MRT Station 
Image 5.48: Multilingual Ticket Balance Checker in Airport MRT Station
Image 6.1: Free Coupons in Different Languages at Taoyuan International Airport
Image 6.2: Horizontal and Vertical Road Signs in Zhongli District
Image 6.3: Street Name in MPS II
Image 6.4: Street Name in Hanyu Pinyin
Image 6.5: Road Name in MPS II
Image 6.6: Road Name in Hanyu Pinyin
Image 6.7: Lane Without Comma Sign
Image 6.8: Lane After Road Name Sign
Image 6.9: Sign Capitalizes all Letters
Image 6.10: Bilingual Sign on Government Building
Image 6.11: Public Sign Capitalizes all English Letters
Image 6.12: Public Sign Capitalizes Only First Letter of Words
Image 6.13: The Word中<Jhong> in Wade-Giles Romanization
Image 6.14: The Word中<Chung> in Tongyong Pinyin
Image 6.15: The Word忠<Jong> in Different Romanization
Image 6.16: Different Romanization Used in Staff Names
Image 6.17: Public Prohibition Sign
Image 6.18: Multilingual Notice in Zhongli Train Station
Image 6.19: Multilingual Notice in Taoyuan Train Station
Image 6.20: Public Sign in Five Languages
Image 6.21: Public Sign in Seven Languages
Image 6.22: Greeting Sign in 12 Languages at Taoyuan Train Station
Image 6.23: Muslim Prayer Room at Taoyuan Train Station
Image 6.24: Monolingual Chinese Shop Sign
Image 6.25: Monolingual Japanese Shop Sign
Image 6.26: Monolingual English Shop Sign
Image 6.27: International Footwear Brand ‘Adidas’
Image 6.28: International Food Franchise ‘McDonald’s’
Image 6.29: Typical Bilingual Chinese-English Private Sign
Image 6.30: Peral Milk Tea Shop ‘迷客夏mi-ke-xia’ Sign
Image 6.31: Famous Croissant Chain ‘八月堂HAZUKIDO’ Shop Sign
Image 6.32: Japanese-Chinese Restaurant Sign
Image 6.33: English-Japanese Shop Sign
Image 6.34: Multilingual Sign in Korean Restaurant
Image 6.35: Multilingual Sign in Japanese Restaurant
Image 6.36: Japanese Possessive Particle ‘の’ Used in Chinese Shop Store Sign 

Image 6.37: Quadrilingual Sign in Chinese Restaurant
Image 6.38: Fried Chicken Store in Centre Taoyuan
Image 6.39: Steakhouse in Centre Zhongli
Image 6.40: Hotel in Airport Terminal 2
Image 6.41: Vietnamese Store in Taoyuan Houzhan Commercial District
Image 6.42: Thai Restaurant in Zhongping Shopping District
Image 6.43: Indonesian Restaurant in Zhongzheng Commercial District
Image 6.44: Transgressive Southeast Asian Language Sign
Image 6.45: Southeast Asian Languages on Local Shop Sign
Image 6.46: Transgressive Sign in Zhongli Urban Shopping Center
Image 6.47: Transgressive Sign in Taoyuan Urban Shopping Center
Image 7.1: Vietnamese Monophonic Sign
Image 7.2: Thai Monophonic Sign
Image 7.3: Arabic Monophonic Sign
Image 7.4: Indonesian Monophonic Sign
Image 7.5: Japanese Monophonic Sign
Image 7.6: Chinese Preferred Code in Bilingual Public Sign
Image 7.7: Chinese Preferred Code in Multilingual Public Sign
Image 7.8: Chinese Preferred Code on the Left
Image 7.9: Code Preference in Vertical Text
Image 7.10: Bilingual Public Homophonic Sign
Image 7.11: Bilingual Public Mixed Sign
Image 7.12: Multilingual Public Homophonic Sign 
Image 7.13: Multilingual Public Mixed Sign
Image 7.14: Non-Chinese Preferred Code on Multilingual Public Sign
Image 7.15: English Preferred Code on Multilingual Public Sign
Image 7.16: Indonesian Preferred Code on Multilingual Public Sign
Image 7.17: Vietnamese Preferred Code on Multilingual Public Sign
Image 7.18: Korean Preferred Code on Multilingual Public Sign
Image 7.19: Bilingual Bottom-Up Homophonic Sign
Image 7.20: Polyphonic Clothing Store Sign
Image 7.21: Polyphonic Hair Salon Sign
Image 7.22: Bilingual Bottom-Up Mixed Sign
Image 7.23: Chinese Preferred Code on Homophonic Sign 
Image 7.24: Vietnamese Preferred Code on Homophonic Sign 
Image 7.25: Thai Preferred Code on Homophonic Sign 
Image 7.26: Japanese Preferred Code on Homophonic Sign  

Image 7.27: Vietnamese Preferred Code on Mixed Sign 
Image 7.28: English Preferred Code on Polyphonic Sign 
Image 7.29: Chinese Preferred Code on Polyphonic Sign 
Image 7.30: Thai Preferred Code on Mixed Sign 
Image 7.31: Multilingual Homophonic Sign
Image 7.32: Multilingual Chinese Preferred Code on Local Shop Sign
Image 7.33: Chinese Preferred Code Left Position on Local Shop Sign
Image 7.34: Multilingual English Preferred Code on Local Shop Sign
Image 7.35: Arabic Preferred Code on Multilingual Sign
Image 7.36: Indonesian Preferred Code on Multilingual Sign
Image 7.37: Simplified Chinese Preferred Code on Multilingual Sign
Image 7.38: Vietnamese Preferred Code on Multilingual Sign
Image 7.39: Japanese Preferred Code on Multilingual Sign
Image 7.40: Korean Preferred Code on Multilingual Sign
Image 7.41: Non-Chinese Multilingual Clothing Store Sign
Image 7.42: Non-Chinese Multilingual Book Store Sign
Image 7.43: Non-Chinese Remittance Service Sign
Image 8.1: Thai Food Menu in Taoyuan Houzhan Commercial District
Image 8.2: Vietnamese Food Menu in Taoyuan Houzhan Commercial District
Image 8.3: Multilingual Ticket Vending Machine in Taoyuan Train Station
Image 8.4: Multilingual Announcement in Longgang Mosque
Image 8.5: Multilingual Forbidding Sign in Taoyuan Train Station
Image 8.6: Multilingual Local Shop Sign in Zhongzhen Market
Image 8.7: Southeast Asian Bookstore at Taoyuan Houzhan Commercial District
Image 8.8: Training Course for New Immigrants
Image 8.9: Training Certificate for New Immigrants

References
Abas, S. (2019a). Commemoration, contestations and collective memory: A linguistic 
landscape study of Buenos Aires, Argentina (Publication No. 22621842) [Doctoral 
dissertation, Indiana University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
Abas, S. (2019b). Cosmopolitanism in ethnic foodscapes: A geosemiotic, social 
literacies view of restaurants in Bloomington, Indiana. Linguistic Landscape: An 
International Journal, 5(1), 52-79. https://doi.org/10.1075/ll.17019.aba
Adding seven new Southeast Asian languages in Ministry of Education’s signboard. 
(2019, January 15). Central News Agency. 
https://www.cna.com.tw/news/ahel/201901150278.aspx
Aiestaran, J., Cenoz, J., & Gorter, D. (2010). Multilingual cityscapes: Perceptions 
and preferences of the inhabitants of the city of Donostia-San Sebastián. In E. Shohamy, E. Ben-Rafael, & M. Barni (Eds.), Linguistic landscape in the city (pp. 219- 
234). Multilingual Matters.
Alomoush, O. I. (2015). Multilingualism in the linguistic landscape of urban Jordan 
[Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Liverpool.
Andrade, T. (2008). How Taiwan became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish, and Han colonization 
in the seventeenth century. Columbia University Press.
Andrews, E. (Ed.). (2018). Language planning in the post-communist era: The struggles 
for language control in the new order in Eastern Europe, Eurasia and China. 
Palgrave Macmillan.
Aristova, N. (2016). English translations in the urban linguistic landscape as a 
marker of an emerging global city: The case of Kazan, Russia. Procedia - Social 
and Behavioral Sciences 231, 216-222.
Backhaus, P. (2006). Multilingualism in Tokyo: A look into the linguistic landscape. 
In D. Gorter (Ed.), Linguistic landscape: A new approach to multilingualism (pp. 
52-66). Multilingual Matters.
Backhaus, P. (2007). Linguistic landscapes: A comparative study of urban 
multilingualism in Tokyo. Multilingual Matters.
Backhaus, P. (2009). Rules and regulations in linguistic landscaping: A comparative 
perspective. In E. Shohamy & D. Gorter (Eds.), Linguistic landscape: Expanding 
the scenery (pp. 157-172). Routledge.
Bagarino, C. (2018, April 16). Here’s why Japan has 3 writing systems. Culture Trip. 
https://theculturetrip.com/asia/japan/articles/heres-why-japan-has-3-writing- 
systems/
Barni, M., & Bagna, C. (2010). Linguistic landscape and language vitality. In E. Shohamy, E. Ben-Rafael, & M. Barni (Eds.), Linguistic landscape in the city (pp. 3- 
18). Multilingual Matters.
Ben-Rafael, E. (2009). A sociological approach to the study of linguistic landscapes. 
In E. Shohamy & D. Gorter (Eds.), Linguistic landscape: Expanding the scenery 
(pp. 40-54). Routledge.
Ben-Rafael, E., & Ben-Rafael, M. (2010). Diaspora and returning diaspora: French- 
Hebrew and vice-versa. In E. Shohamy, E. Ben-Rafael, & M. Barni (Eds.), Linguistic landscape in the city (pp. 326-343). Multilingual Matters.
Ben-Rafael, E., & Ben-Rafael, M. (2019). Multiple globalizations: Linguistic landscapes in world-cities. Brill.
Ben-Rafael, E., Shohamy, E., Amara, M. H., & Trumper-Hecht, N. (2006). Linguistic landscape as symbolic construction of the public space: The case of Israel. International Journal of Multilingualism, 3(1), 7-30. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790710608668383
Ben-Rafael, E., Shohamy, E., & Barni, M. (2010). Introduction: An approach to an ‘ordered disorder’. In E. Shohamy, E. Ben- Rafael, & M. Barni (Eds.), Linguistic landscape in the city (pp. xi-xxviii). Multilingual Matters.
Berger, A. A. (1992). Reading matter: Multidisciplinary perspectives on material culture.
Transaction Publishers.
Black Momo. (2017, March 31). https://blackmomo.tw/longgang-rice-noodle/
Blackwood, R. J. (2010). Marking France’s public space: Empirical surveys on regional heritage languages in two provincial cities. In E. Shohamy, E. Ben-Rafael, & M. Barni (Eds.), Linguistic landscape in the city (pp. 292-306). Multilingual Matters.
Blackwood, R., Lanza, E., & Woldemariam, H. (Eds.). (2016). Negotiating and contesting identities in linguistic landscapes. Bloomsbury.
Blackwood, R., & Tufi, S. (2012). Policies vs non-policies: Analysing regional languages and the national standard in the linguistic landscape of French and Italian Mediterranean cities. In D. Gorter, H. F. Marten, & L. Van Mensel (Eds.) Minority languages in the linguistic landscape (pp. 109-126). Palgrave Macmillan.
Blommaert, J. (2013). Ethnography, superdiversity and linguistic landscapes: Chronicles of complexity. Multilingual Matters.
Blommaert, J., & Maly, I. (2014). Ethnographic linguistic landscape analysis and social change: A case study. (Tilburg Papers in Culture Studies, No. 100). Babylon.
Bogatto, F., & Hélot, C. (2010). Linguistic landscape and language diversity in Strasbourg: The ‘quartier gare’. In E. Shohamy, E. Ben-Rafael, & M. Barni (Eds.), Linguistic landscape in the city (pp. 275-291). Multilingual Matters.
Bolton, K. (2012). World Englishes and linguistic landscapes. World Englishes, 31(1), 30–33. 
Boubtane, E., Coulibaly, D., & d’Albis, H. (2015). Immigration policy and macroeconomic performance in France. Etudes et Documents CERDI, No. 5. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01135389/document.
Bourdieu, P. (1991). Language and symbolic power. (G. Raymond & M. Adamson, Trans.). Harvard University Press. 
Cahill, D. (1990). Intermarriage in international context: A study of Filipina women married to Australian, Japanese and Swiss men. Scalabrini Migration Center.
Canagarajah, S. (Ed.). (2005). Reclaiming the local in language policy and practice. Lawrence Erlbaum.
Canagarajah, S. (Ed.). (2017). The Routledge handbook of migration and language. Routledge.
Castagno, A. E., & McCarty, T. L. (Eds.). (2017). The anthropology of education policy: Ethnographic inquiries into policy as social cultural process. Routledge.
Cenoz, J., & Gorter, D. (2006). Linguistic landscape and minority languages. International Journal of Multilingualism 3(1), 67-80. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790710608668386
Cenoz, J., & Gorter, D. (2009). Language economy and linguistic landscape. In E. Shohamy & D. Gorter (Eds.), Linguistic landscape: Expanding the scenery (pp. 55-69). Routledge.
Chandler, D. (2002). Semiotics: The basics. Routledge.
Chang, J. (2021). The ideology of English-as-the-global-language in Taiwan’s private English language schools. Arab World English Journal, 12(4), 53-68.
https://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol12no4.4
Chen, M. R. (1996). A study of language education policies in Taiwan after its retrocession [Unpublished master’s thesis]. National Taiwan University.
Chen, P. (2001). Policy on the selection and implementation of a standard language as a source of conflict in Taiwan. In N. Gottlieb & P. Chen (Eds.), Language planning and language policy: East Asian perspectives (pp. 95-110). Curzon Press.
Chen, S. (2010). Multilingualism in Taiwan. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 2010(205), 79-104. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijsl.2010.040 
Chen, S. (2006). Simultaneous promotion of indigenization and internationalization: new language-in-education policy in Taiwan. Language and Education, 20(4), 322-337. https://doi.org/10.2167/le632.0
Chern, C. L., & Dooley, K. (2014). Learning English by walking down the street. ELT Journal, 68(2), 113-123. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/cct067 
Chiu, H. H. (2008). The colonial ‘civilizing process’ in Dutch Formosa, 1624-1662. Brill.
Chmielewska, E. (2011). Semiosis takes place, or radical uses of quaint theories. In A. Jaworski & C. Thurlow (Eds.), Semiotic landscapes: Language, image, space (pp. 274-291). Continuum.
Chuan, S. H. (2008, September 18). Hanyu Pinyin to be standard system in 2009. Taipei Times. https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2008/09/18/2003423528
Colomé, L. C., & Long, E. (2012). The linguistic landscape of three streets in Barcelona: Patterns of language visibility in public space. In D. Gorter, H. F. Marten, & L. V. Mensel (Eds.), Minority languages in the linguistic landscape (pp. 183-203). Palgrave Macmillan. 
Coluzzi, P. (2012). Multilingual societies vs monolingual states: The linguistic landscapes in Italy and Brunei Darussalam. In D. Gorter, H. F. Marten, & L. Van Mensel (Eds.), Minority languages in the linguistic landscape (pp. 225-242). Palgrave Macmillan.
Commercial district in front of Zhongli Station. (n.d.). In Wikepedia. https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%A3%A2%E7%AB%99%E5%89%8D%E5%95%86%E5%9C%88
Cooper, R. L. (1989). Language planning and social change. Cambridge University Press.
Coronel-Molina, S. M. (2015). Language ideology, policy and planning in Peru. Multilingual Matters.
Coulmas, F. (2018). An introduction to multilingualism: Language in a changing world. Oxford University Press. 
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage.
Creswell, J. W., & Miller, D. L. (2000). Determining validity in qualitative inquiry. Theory into Practice, 39(3), 124-130. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip3903_2
Crystal, D. (2003). English as a global language. Cambridge University Press. 
Curtin, M. L. (2009). Languages on display: Indexical signs, identities and the linguistic landscape of Taipei. In E. Shohamy & D. Gorter (Eds.), Linguistic landscape: Expanding the scenery (pp. 221-237). Routledge.
Curtin, M. L. (2015). Creativity in polyscriptal typographies in the linguistic landscape of Taipei. Social Semiotics, 25(2), 236-243. https://doi.org/10.1080/10350330.2015.1010315
Dailey, R. M., Giles, H., & Jansma, L. L. (2005). Language attitudes in an Anglo-Hispanic context: The role of the linguistic landscape. Language & Communication, 25(1), 27-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.langcom.2004.04.004
Dal Negro, S. (2009). Local policy modeling the linguistic landscape. In E. Shohamy & D. Gorter (Eds.), Linguistic landscape: Expanding the scenery (pp. 206-218). Routledge.
Department of Education. (2014, November 28). Official document from the Department of Dducation, Taoyuan (No. 1030086252). Taoyuan City. 
Department of Education. (2021, September 16). Official document from the Department of Education, Taoyuan (No. 1100082643). Taoyuan City.
Department of General Planning. (2015). The allocation rate for foreign workers for new investment cases and returning overseas Taiwanese business investment cases. Ministry of Labor Republic of China (Taiwan). https://english.mol.gov.tw/homeinfo/7040/7815/
Denzin, N. K. (1978). The research act: A theoretical introduction to sociological methods. McGraw-Hill.
Djuraeva, M., & Tochon, F. V. (Eds.). (2018). Language policy or the politics of language: Re-imagining the role of language in a neoliberal society. Deep University Press. 
Dong, F. C. (1998). Correction of the name of ‘Taiwanese’. http://www.dang.idv.tw/taiwan/t24.htm 
Dreyer, J. T. (2003). The evolution of language policies and national identity in Taiwan. In M. E. Brown & S. Ganguly (Eds.), Fighting words: Language policy and ethnic relations in Asia (pp. 385-409). MIT Press.
Du Plessis, T. (2010). Bloemfontein/Mangaung, ‘city on the move’: Language management and transformation of a non-representative linguistic landscape. In E. Shohamy, E. Ben-Rafael, & M. Barni (Eds.), Linguistic landscape in the city (pp. 74-95). Multilingual Matters.
Dupré, J. F. (2014). The politics of linguistic normalization in 21st century Taiwan: Ethnicity, national identity, and the party system [Unpublished doctoral dissertation)]. University of Hong Kong. http://dx.doi.ogr/10.5353/th_b5204898
Dupré, J. F. (2017). Culture politics and lrecognition in Taiwan: Ethnicity, national identity, and the party system. Routledge.
Duranti, A. (1997). Linguistic anthropology. Cambridge University Press.
Eco, U. (1979). A theory of semiotics. Indiana University Press.
Edelman, L. (2009). What’s in the name? Classification of proper names by language. In E. Shohamy & D. Gorter (Eds.), Linguistic landscape: Expanding the scenery (pp.141-154). Routledge.
Edmond, L. J. (2017). An evolving mainstream: A linguistic landscapes analysis of migration and assimilation in Cary, NC. Second Language Studies, 35(2), 31-64. http://hdl.handle.net/10125/67834
Everington, K. (2020, January 7). Taiwan welcomes record 2 million Japanese tourists in 2019. Taiwan News. https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3852065
Fishman, J. A. (1973). Language modernization and planning in comparison with other types of national modernization and planning. Language in Society, 2(1), 23-43. https://doi.org/10.1017/S004740450000004X
Fishman, J. A. (1980). Bilingual education, language planning and English. English World-Wide, 1(1), 11-24. https://doi.org/10.1075/eww.1.1.04fis
Friedman, A., & Feichtinger, E. (2017). Peirce’s sign theory as an open-source R package. Signs, 8, 1-24. https://tidsskrift.dk/signs/article/view/26872
Garvin, R. T. (2010). Responses to the linguistic landscape in Memphis, Tennessee: An urban space in transition. In E. Shohamy, E. Ben-Rafael, & M. Barni (Eds.), Linguistic landscape in the city (pp. 252-271). Multilingual Matters.
Glasgow, G. P., & Bouchard, J. (Eds.). (2019). Researching agency in language policy and planning. Routledge.
Glossika. (2018). Differences between Traditional Chinese and Simplified Chinese. https://ai.glossika.com/blog/differences-between-traditional-chinese-and-simplified-chinese
Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Doubleday.
Golafshani, N. (2003). Understanding reliability and validity in qualitative research. The Qualitative Report, 8(4), 597-606. http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR8-4/golafshani.pdf
Gorter, D. 2006. Introduction: The study of the linguistic landscape as a new approach to multilingualism. In D. Gorter (Ed.), Linguistic landscape: A new approach to multilingualism (pp. 1-6). Multilingual Matters.
Gorter, D. (2006). Linguistic landscape: A new approach to multilingualism. Multilingual Matters.
Gorter, D. (2013). Linguistic landscapes in a multilingual world. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 33, 190-212.
Gorter, D., & Cenoz, J. (2008). Knowledge about language and linguistic landscape. In N. H. Hornberger (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Language and Education(2nd ed., pp. 1-13). Springer Science. http://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-0-387-30424-3_160
Gorter, D., Marten, H. F., & Van Mensel, L. (Eds.). (2012). Minority languages in the linguistic landscape. Palgrave Macmillan.
Halbwachs, M. (1992). On collective memory (L. A. Coser, Trans.). University of Chicago Press.
Hammersley, M., & Atkinson, P. (1995). Ethnography: principles in practice (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Haugen, E. (1959). Planning for a standard language in modern Norway. Anthropological Linguistics, 1(3), 8-21. 
Haugen, E. (1966). Language conflict and language planning. Harvard University Press.
Haynes, P. (2012). Welsh language policy: A study of the linguistic landscape at Cardiff University [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Birmingham.
Hewitt-Bradshaw, I. (2014). Linguistic landscape as a language learning and literacy resource in Caribbean creole contexts. Caribbean Curriculum, 22, 157–173.
History of Taiwan. (n.d.). In Wikepedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Taiwan
History of Zhongzhen Market. (n.d.). In Wikepedia. https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BF%A0%E8%B2%9E%E5%B8%82%E5%A0%B4
Hornberger, N. H. (1994). Literacy and language planning. Language and Education, 8(1-2), 75-86.
Hornberger, N. H. (Ed.). (1997). Indigenous literacies in the Americas: Language planning from the bottom up. Mouton de Gruyter.
Hornberger, N. H. (2006). Frameworks and models in language policy and lanning. In T. Ricento (Ed.), An introduction to language policy: Theory and method (pp. 24–41). Blackwell.Hornsby, M., & Vigers, D. (2012). Minority semiotic landscapes: An ideological minefield? In D. Gorter, H. F. Marten, & L. V. Mensel (Eds.), Minority languages in the linguistic landscape. (pp. 57-73). Palgrave Macmillan. 
Household Registration Office of Taoyuan District (2022, January 14). Demographic chart of various districts in Taoyuan City over the years. Taoyuan City Government. https://www.taoyuan-hro.tycg.gov.tw/home.jsp?id=156&parentpath=0,11,12
Hsia, H. C. (2001). The media construction of the ‘foreign brides’ phenomena. Taiwan: A Radical Quarterly in Social Studies, 43, 153-196.
Hu, Y. H. (2019). Multilingual audio announcements: Power and identity. In M. Pütz & N. Mundt (Eds.), Expanding the linguistic landscape: Linguistic diversity, multimodality and the use of space as semiotic resource (pp. 132-149). Multilingual Matters.
Huang, I. C. (2021). The Southeast Asian languages policy in Taiwan: The linguistic and nonlinguistic goals. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. DOI: 10.1080/01434632.2021.1892704.
Huang, M. X. (2006). New Taiwanese children of foreign brides and parenting problems among them. E-Journal of Sociology and Communication 55. http://mail.nhu.edu.tw/~society/e-j/55/55-68.htm
Huang, S. (2000). Language, identity, and conflict: A Taiwanese study. International Journal of Society and Language, 143, 139-149. 
Huang, S. F. (1991). Some sociolinguistic observations on Taiwan. The World of Chinese Language & Literature, 7(6), 16–22. 
Huebner, T. (2006). Bangkok’s linguistic landscapes: Environmental print, codemixing and language change. In D. Gorter (Ed.), Linguistic landscape: A new approach to multilingualism (pp. 31-51). Multilingual Matters.
Huebner, T. (2009). A framework for the linguistic analysis of linguistic landscapes. In E. Shohamy & D. Gorter (Eds.), Linguistic landscape: Expanding the scenery (pp. 78-95). Routledge.
Hult, F. M. (2014). Drive-thru linguistic landscaping: Constructing a linguistically dominant place in a bilingual space. International Journal of Bilingualism, 18(5), 507-523.
Hult, F. M. (2018). Language policy and planning and linguistic landscape. In J. W. Tolleffson & M. Pérez-Millans (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of language policy and planning (pp. 333-351). Oxford University Press.
Hult, F. M., & Johnson, D. C. (Eds.). (2015). Research methods in language policy and planning: A practical guide. Wiley Blackwell.
Hung, Y. N. (2012). Similarities and dissimilarities in reading Chinese and English: Goodman’s reading model perspective. In K. Goodman, S. Wang, M. Iventosch & Y. Goodman (Eds.), Reading in Asian languages: Making sense of written texts in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean (pp.32-44). Routledge.
ILO (1999). International labor conference: Report III (1B), migrant workers. http://www.ilo.org/public/english/10ilc/ilc87/r3-1b.htm
Itagi, N. H., & Singh, S. K. (2002). Introduction. In N. H. Itagi & S. K. Singh (Eds.), Linguistic landscaping in India with particular reference to the new states: Proceedings of a seminar (pp. ix-xii). Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages and Mahatma Gandhi International Hindi University.
acobs, J. B. (2014). Taiwan’s colonial experiences and the development of ethnic identities: Some hypotheses. Taiwan in Comparative Perspective, 5, 47-59.
Jaworksi, A., & Thurlow, C. (Eds.). (2010). Semiotic landscapes: Language, image, space. Continuum International.
Jaworski, A. & Yeung, S. (2010). Life in the Garden of Eden: The naming and imagery of residential Hong Kong. In E. Shohamy, E. Ben-Rafael, & M. Barni (Eds.), Linguistic landscape in the city (pp. 153-181). Multilingual Matters.
Jenkins, J., Baker, W., & Dewey, M. (2018). The Routledge handbook of English as a lingua franca. Routledge. 
Johnson, D. C. (2013). Language policy. Palgrave Mcmillan.
Kallen, J. (2009). Tourism and representation in the Irish. In E. Shohamy & D. Gorter (Eds.), Linguistic landscape: Expanding the scenery (pp. 270-284). Routledge.
Kallen, J. L., & Dhonnacha, E. N. (2010). Language and inter-language in urban Irish and Japanese language landscapes. In E. Shohamy, E. Ben-Rafael, & M. Barni (Eds.), Linguistic landscape in the city (pp. 19-36). Multilingual Matters.
Kaplan, R. B., & Baldauf, R. B., Jr. (1997). Language planning from practice to theory. Multilingual Matters.
Kaplan, R. B. (1989). Language planning vs. planning language. In C. Candlin & T. McNamara (Eds.), Language learning and community (pp. 193-203). National Centre for English Teaching and Research, Macquarie University.
Kasanga, L. A. (2012). Mapping the linguistic landscape of a commercial neighborhood in central Phnom Penh. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 33(6), 553-567.
Ke, I. C. (2021). Globalization and English education in Taiwan: urriculum, perceptions, and pedagogies. Routledge.
Kevincm (2017). Taipei Taoyuan Airport MRT link opens between the airport and the city. Economy Class and Beyond. https://economyclassandbeyond.boardingarea.com/2017/03/03/taipei-taoyuan-airport-mrt-link-opens-airport-city/
Kirkpatrick, A. (2020) The Routledge handbook of world Englishes. Routledge.
Kloss, H. (1969). Research possibilities on group bilingualism: A report. Université Laval, Centre International de Recherches sur le Bilinguisme.
Kress, G. (2010). Multimodality: A social semiotic approach to contemporary communication. Routledge.
Kress, G., & Mavers, D. (2005). Social semiotics and multimodal texts. In B. Somekh & C. Lewin (Eds.), Research methods in the social sciences (pp. 172-179). Sage Publications.
Krompák, E., Fernández-Mallat, V., & Meyer, S. (Eds.). (2022). Linguistic landscape and educational spaces. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Krueger, R. A. (1994). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research. Sage.
Kvale, S., & Brinkmann, S. (2009). Interviews: Learning the craft of qualitative research interviewing. Sage.
Lai, Y. W. (2016, July 25). 10 languages in Taoyuan MRT ticket machines. China Times. https://www.chinatimes.com/newspapers/20160725000418-260107?chdtv
Lamley, H. (1981). Sub-ethnic rivalry in the Ching period. In E. M. Ahern & H. Gates (Eds.), The anthropology of Taiwanese society (pp. 282-317). Stanford University Press.
Lan, P. C. (2019) From reproductive assimilation to neoliberal multiculturalism: Framing and regulating immigrant mothers and children in Taiwan, Journal of Intercultural Studies, 40(3), pp. 318-333. DOI: 10.1080/07256868.2019.1598952.
Landry, R., & Bourhis, R. Y. 1997. Linguistic landscape and ethnolinguistic vitality: An empirical study. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 16(1), 23-49.
Lanza, E., & Woldemariam, H. (2009). Language ideology and linguistic landscape: Language policy and globalization in a regional capital of Ethiopia. In E. Shohamy & D. Gorter (Eds.), Linguistic landscape: Expanding the scenery (pp. 189-205). Routledge.
Lee, W. C. (2000). Taiwan in perspective: International studies in sociology and social anthropology. Brill.
Leeman, J., & Modan, G. (2009). Commodified language in Chinatown: A contextualized approach to linguistic landscape. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 13(3), 332-362.
Leeman, J., & Modan, G. (2010). Selling the city: Language, ethnicity and commodified space. In E. Shohamy, E. Ben-Rafael, & M. Barni (Eds.), Linguistic landscape in the city (pp. 182-198). Multilingual Matters.
Leimgruber, J. R. E., & Fernández-Mallat, V. (2021). Language attitude and identity building in the linguistic landscape of Montreal. Open Linguistics 7(1), pp. 406-422. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/opli-2021-0021.
Leung, G.Y., & Wu, M. H. (2012). Linguistic landscape and heritage language literacy education: A case study of linguistic rescaling in Philadelphia Chinatown. Written Language and Literacy, 15(1), 114-140.
Lewis, I. M. (1985). Social anthropology in perspective. Cambridge University Press.
Lin, L. Y. (2012, November 27). Holiday Consumer Paradise (3-1). Geography Classroom Without Borders. http://lovegeo.blogspot.com/2017/05/l10_6.html
Lipovsky, C. (2019). Belleville's linguistic heterogeneity viewed from its landscape. International Journal of Multilingualism, 16(3), 244-269.
Lou, J. J. (2010). Chinese on the side: The marginalization of Chinese in the linguistic and social landscapes of Chinatown in Washington, DC. In E. Shohamy, E. Ben-Rafael, & M. Barni (Eds.), Linguistic landscape in the city (pp. 96-114). Multilingual Matters.
Lou, J. J. (2016). The linguistic landscape of Chinatown: A sociolinguistic ethnography. Multilingual Matters.
Lou, J. J. (2017). Spaces of consumption and senses of place: A geosemiotic analysis of three markets in Hong Kong, Social Semiotics, 27(4), 513-531, DOI: 10.1080/10350330.2017.1334403.
Lu, X., Sudipa, I. N., Artawa, I. K., & Suastra, I. M. (2021). The linguistic landscape of Dali ancient city, China: A geosemiotics approach. The International Journal of Language and Cultural TIJOLAC 3(1), 46-55. https://www.growingscholar.org/journal/index.php/TIJOLAC/ article/view/104
Malinowski, D., Maxim, H. H., & Dubreil, S. (Eds.). (2020). Language teaching in the linguistic landscape: Mobilizing pedagogy in public space. Springer.
Malinowski, D. (2009). Authorship in the linguistic landscape: A multimodal-performative view. In E. Shohamy & D. Gorter (Eds.), Linguistic landscape: Expanding the scenery (pp. 107-125). Routledge.
Malinowski, D. (2010). Showing and seeing in the Korean linguistic cityscape. In E. Shohamy, E., Ben Rafael, & M. Barni (Eds.), Linguistic landscape in the city (pp.199-215). Multilingual Matters.
Manan, S. A., David, M. K. Dumanig, F. P., & Naqeebullah, K. (2015). Politics, economics and identity: Mapping the linguistic landscape of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. International Journal of Multilingualism 12(1), 31-50.
Marston, H., & Bush, R. C. (2018, July30). Taiwan’s engagement with Southeast Asia is making progress under the New Southbound Policy. Brookings Institution. https://www.brookings.edu/opinions/taiwans-engagement-with-southeast-asia-is-making-progress-under-the-new-southbound-policy/
Marten, H. F. (2010). Linguistic landscape under strict state language policy: Reversing the Soviet legacy in a regional centre in Latvia. In E. Shohamy, E. Ben-Rafael, & M. Barni (Eds.), Linguistic landscape in the city (pp. 115-132). Multilingual Matters.
Marten, H. F. (2012). ‘Latgalian is not a language’: Linguistic landscapes in eastern Latvia and how they reflect centralist attitudes. In D. Gorter, H. F. Marten, & L. V. Mensel (Eds.), Minority languages in the linguistic landscape (pp. 19-35). Palgrave Macmillan.
McCarty, T. L. (Ed.). (2011). Ethnography and language policy. Routledge.
Menken, K., & García, O. (2010). Negotiating language policies in schools: Educators as policymakers. Routledge.
Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation (3rd Ed.). Jossey-Bass.
Ministry of Education. (2000). The nine-year joint curriculum plan for primary and junior high schools, temporary guideline for language areas. Republic of China (Taiwan). 
Ministry of Education. (2003). General guidelines of grades 1-9 curriculum for elementary and junior high school education. Republic of China (Taiwan). 
Ministry of Education. (2007). Children of Chinese and foreign spouses at schools. Republic of China (Taiwan). 
Ministry of Education. (2011). Principles of Chinese transliteration. Republic of China (Taiwan). Ministry of Education. (2016). Grade 1-12 curriculum guidelines: Southeast Asian languages. Republic of China (Taiwan). 
Ministry of Education. (2020). The Ministry of Education's primary and secondary school learning assistance takes into account the combination of digital teaching and individual level guidance. Republic of China (Taiwan). https://www.edu.tw/News_Content.aspx?n=9E7AC85F1954DDA8&s=F92B7D576EA39E75
Ministry of Education. (2021). Education in Taiwan. Republic of China (Taiwan). https://stats.moe.gov.tw/files/ebook/Education_in_Taiwan/2021 2022_Education_in_Taiwan.pdf
Ministry of Foreign Affairs. (2018). 2018-2019 Taiwan at a glance. Republic of China (Taiwan).
Ministry of the Interior. (2007). Number of foreign and mainland spouses based on nationalities. Republic of China (Taiwan). http://www.immigration.gov.tw/aspcode/info9707.asp
Mirvahedi, S. H. (2022). Linguistic landscapes in South-East Asia: The politics of language and public signage. Routledge.
Mitchell, T. D. (2011). ‘A Latino community takes hold’: Reproducing semiotic landscapes in media discourse. In A. Jaworski & C. Thurlow (Eds.), Semiotic landscapes: Language, image, space (pp. 168-186). Continuum.
Moriarty, M. (2012). Language ideological debates in the linguistic landscape of an Irish tourist town. In D. Gorter, H. F. Marten, & L. V. Mensel (Eds.), Minority languages in the linguistic landscape (pp. 74-88). Palgrave Macmillan.
Muth, S., (2012). The linguistic landscapes of Chișinău and Vilnius: Linguistic landscape and the representation of minority languages in two post-Soviet capitals. In D. Gorter, H. F. Marten, & L. Van Mensel (Eds.), Minority languages in the linguistic landscape (pp. 204-224). Palgrave Macmillan.
Muth, S. (2014). Linguistic landscapes on the other side of the border: Signs, language and the construction of cultural identity in Transnistria. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 2014(227), 25-46.
Muysken, J. & Ziesemer, T., (2011). The effect of net immigration on economic growth in an ageing economy: Transitory and permanent shocks (Working Paper No. 2011-055). UNU-MERIT. 
Na, C. Y. (2010). The effectiveness of an intensive English preview program for EFL elementary students. [Unpublished Master’s thesis]. University of Kainan, Taiwan.
National Development Council. (2015, January). Taiwan international environment handbook. Republic of China (Taiwan). 
National Development Council. (2016, June). Local government bilingual signage standard operating handbook. Republic of China (Taiwan). 
National Development Council. (2018, December 10). Blueprint for developing Taiwan into a bilingual nation by 2030. Republic of China (Taiwan). https://bilingual.ndc.gov.tw/sites/bl4/files/news_event_docs/blueprint_for_developing_taiwan_into_a_bilingual_nation_by_2030.pdf
National languages development act passed by legislature (2018, December 26). Taiwan Today. https://taiwantoday.tw/news.php?unit=2,6,10,15,18&post=147829
National statistics (n.d.). In National Statistics, R.O.C. (Taiwan). Republic of China (Taiwan). https://www1.stat.gov.tw/mp.asp?mp=3
Neustupný, J. V. (1974). Basic types of treatment of language problems. In J. A. Fishman (Ed.), Advances in language planning (pp. 37–48). Mouton.
Nordquist, R (2019). Semiotics definition and examples: Semiotics is the study of signs and symbols in human communication. ThoughtCo.com. https://www.thoughtco.com/semiotics-definition-1692082
OECD/ILO (2018), How immigrants contribute to developing countries’ economies. ILO/OECD Publishing, Paris.
Patton, M. Q. (2001). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (3rd Ed.). Sage.
Pavlenko, A. (2010). Linguistic landscape of Kyiv, Ukraine: A diachronic study. In E. Shohamy, E. Ben-Rafael, & M. Barni (Eds.), Linguistic landscape in the city (pp. 133-150). Multilingual Matters.
Peck, A., Stroud, C., & Williams, Q. (Eds.). (2019). Making sense of people and place in linguistic landscapes. Bloomsbury.
Peck, A., & Banda, F. (2014). Observatory’s linguistic landscape: Semiotic appropriation and the reinvention of space. Social Semiotics, 24(3), 302-323. DOI: 10.1080/10350330.2014.896651
Penny, J., & Khoo, S. (1996). Intermarriage: A study of migration and integration. Bureau of Immigration and Population Research, AGPS.
Pennycook, A. (2009). Linguistic landscapes and the transgressive semiotics of graffiti. In E. Shohamy & D. Gorter (Eds.), Linguistic landscape: Expanding the scenery (pp. 302-312). Routledge.
Pennycook, A. (2019). Linguistic landscape and semiotic assemblages. In M. Pütz & N. Mundt (Eds.), Expanding the linguistic landscape: Linguistic diversity, multimodality and the use of space as semiotic resource (pp. 75-88). Multilingual Matters.
Pütz, M., & Mundt, N. (Eds.). (2019). Expanding the linguistic landscape: Linguistic diversity, multimodality and the use of space as a semiotic resource. Multilingual Matters.
Puzey, G. (2012). Two-way traffic: How linguistic landscapes reflect and influence the politics of language. In D. Gorter, H. F. Marten, & L. Van Mensel (Eds.), Minority languages in the linguistic landscape (pp. 127-147). Palgrave Macmillan.
Raga, A. (2012). Linguistic landscape and language attitude: A case study on Jimma town’s linguistic landscape inscribers’ attitude for Afan Oromo. International Journal of Sociology and Anthropology, 4(7), 218-225.
Reh, M. (2004). Multilingual writing: A reader-oriented typology with--examples from Lira Municipality (Uganda). International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 2004(170), 1-41.
Republic of China (Taiwan) Official Website. (n.d.). https://www.taiwan.gov.tw/ 
Ricento, T. (Ed.). (2006). An introduction to language policy: Theory and methods. Blackwell Publishing.
Ricento, T. (Ed.). (2009). Language policy and planning: Critical concepts in linguistics. Routledge.
Ricento, T. (Ed.). (2015). Language policy and political economy: English in a global context. Oxford University Press.
Ricento, T. (Ed.). (2019). Language politics and policies: Perspectives from Canada and the United States. Cambridge University Press.
Rubin, J., & Jernudd, B. H. (Eds.). (1971). Can language be planned? Sociolinguistic theory and practice for developing nations. University Press of Hawaii.
Ruiz, R. (1984). Orientations in language planning. NABE Journal, 8(2), 15-34.



Salmonsen, R. (2018, June 4). Second-generation immigrant students are 10% of Taiwan's 1st-9th graders. Taiwan News. https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3447712
Salo, H. (2012). Using linguistic landscape to examine the visibility of Sámi languages in the North Calotte. In D. Gorter, H. F. Marten, & L. V. Mensel (Eds.), Minority languages in the linguistic landscape (pp. 243-259). Palgrave Macmillan.
Schiffman, H. F. (1996). Linguistic culture and language policy. Routledge.
Schmitt, H. (2018). Language in the public space: An introduction to the linguistic landscape. Independently published. 
Scollon, R., & Scollon, S. W. (2003) Discourses in place: Language in the material world. Routledge.
Scott, M., & Tiun, H.-K. (2007). Mandarin-only to Mandarin-plus: Taiwan. [Special Issue] Language Policy, 6, 53-72.
Shen, Y. (n.d.). The largest migration business district in Taoyuan: 7.9 billion in annua consumption. Globle Views. https://event.gvm.com.tw/201906_migrant-worker/13.html
Shepherd, J. R. (1993). Statecraft and political economy on the Taiwan frontier, 1600-1800. Stanford University Press.

Sherman, A., Trisi, D., Stone, C., Gonzalez, S., & Parrott, S. (2019, August 15). Immigrants Contribute Greatly to US Economy, Despite Administration’s ‘Public Charge’ Rule Rationale. Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. https://www.cbpp.org/research/poverty-and-inequality/immigrants-contribute-greatly-to-us-economy-despite-administrations.
Sherris, A., & Adami, E. (Eds.). (2019). Making signs, translanguaging ethnographies: Exploring urban, rural and educational spaces. Multilingual Matters.
Shohamy, E. (2006). Language policy: Hidden approaches and new agendas. Routledge.
Shohamy, E. (2015). LL research as expanding language and language policy. Linguistic Landscape, 1(1-2), 152-171.
Shohamy, E., Ben-Rafael, E., & Barni, M. (Eds). (2010). Linguistic landscape in the city. Multilingual Matters.
Shohamy, E., & Gorter, D. (Eds.). (2009). Linguistic landscape: Expanding the scenery. Routledge.
Siebetcheu, R. (2016). Semiotic and linguistic analysis of banners in three European countries’ football stadia: Italy, France and England. In R. Blackwood, E. Lanza, & H. Woldemariam (Eds.), Negotiating and contesting identities in linguistic landscapes (pp. 181-194). Bloomsbury.
Siiner, M., Hult, F. M., & Kupisch, T. (Eds.). (2018). Language policy and language acquisition planning. Springer.
Siwina, P. & Prasithrathsint, A. 2020. Multilingual landscapes on Thailand’s borders. Journal of Mekong Societies. 16(1), 112–131.
Sloboda, M., Szabó-Gilinger, E., Vigers, D., & Šimičić, L. (2010). Carrying out a language policy change: Advocacy coalitions and the management of linguistic landscape. Current Issues in Language Planning 11(2), 95-113.
Sommers, S. (2003, December 29). Spread of English in the ROC. Scott Sommer’s Taiwan blog. http://scottsommers.blogs.com/taiwanweblog/2003/12/spread_of_engli_1.html
Spolsky, B. (2004). Language policy: Key topics in sociolinguistics. Cambridge University Press.
Spolsky, B. (2009). Prolegomena to a sociolinguistic theory of public signage. In E. Shohamy & D. Gorter (Eds.), Linguistic landscape: Expanding the scenery (pp. 25-39). Routledge.
Spolsky, B. (Ed.). (2014). The Cambridge handbook of language policy. Cambridge University Press.
Spolsky, B. (2020). The semiotics of public signage. Linguistic Landscape 6(1), 2-15.
Stenbacka, C. (2001). Qualitative research requires quality concepts of its own. Management Decision, 39(7), pp. 551-556.
Stewart, W. (1968). A sociolinguistic typology for describing national multilingualism. In J. A. Fishman (Ed.), Readings in the sociology of language (pp. 531-545). Mouton.
Stroud, C. (2016). Turbulent linguistic landscapes and the semiotics of citizenship. In R. Blackwood, E. Lanza, & H. Woldemariam (Eds.), Negotiating and contesting identities in linguistic landscapes (pp. 3-18). Bloomsbury. 
Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport (n.d.). In Wikipedia. https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%87%BA%E7%81%A3%E6%A1%83%E5%9C%92%E5%9C%8B%E9%9A%9B%E6%A9%9F%E5%A0%B4
Taoyuan Metro (n.d.). Company. 
	https://www.tymetro.com.tw/tymetro-new/en/_pages/about/index.html
Taoyuan New Immigrants Culture Hall. (n.d.). About us. https://www.taoyuannewimmigrants.com.tw/aboutus.html
Taoyuan New Immigrants Culture Hall. (n.d.). New immigrant statistics. https://www.taoyuannewimmigrants.com.tw/Taoyuan, Taiwan (n.d.). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoyuan,_Taiwan
Tauli, V. (1974). The theory of language planning. In J. Fishman (Ed.), Advances in language planning (pp. 49-67). Mouton.
Tian, J. Q. (2006). Government, business, and the politics of interdependence and conflict across the Taiwan Strait. Palgrave Macmillan.
Tollefson, J. W. (1981). Centralized and decentralized language planning. Language Problems and Language Planning, 5(2), 175-188.
Tollefson, J. (Ed.). (2013). Language policies in education: Critical issues (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Tollefson, J., & Pérez-Milans, M. (Eds.). (2018). The Oxford handbook of language policy and planning. Oxford University Press.
Trumper-Hecht, N. (2010). Linguistic landscape in mixed cities in Israel from the perspective of ‘walkers’: The case of Arabic. In E. Shohamy, E. Ben-Rafael, & M. Barni (Eds.), Linguistic landscape in the city (pp. 235-251). Multilingual Matters.
Tsai pledges to deepen ties with global Muslim community. (2019, September 19). Taiwan Today. https://taiwantoday.tw/news.php?unit=346&post=162407
Tsao, F. F. (1999). The languages spoken by the four major ethnic groups in Taiwan: Their history and present state. Hanxue Yanjiu (Chinese Studies), 17(2), 313-343.
Tsao, F. F. (2000). The language planning situation in Taiwan. In R. B. Baldauf & R. B. Kaplan (Eds.). Language planning in Nepal, Taiwan, and Sweden (pp. 60-106). Multilingual Matters.
Tsao, F. F. (2008). The language planning situation in Taiwan. In R. B. Baldauf & R. B. Kaplan, (Eds.). Language planning and policy in Asia, Vol. 1: Japan, Nepal, and Chinese characters (pp. 285-300). Multilingual Matters.
Tse, J. K. P. (1987). Language planning and English as a foreign language in middle school education in the Republic of China. Crane Publishing.
Tse, J. K. P. (2000). Language and a rising new identity in Taiwan. International Journal of Society and Language, 2000(143), 151-164.
Tufi, S., & Blackwood, R. (2010). Trademarks in the linguistic landscape: Methodological and theoretical challenges in qualifying brand names in the public space. International Journal of Multilingualism, 7(3), 197-210.
Van Leeuwen, T. & Kress, G. (2006). Reading images: The grammar of visual design (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Van Parijs, P. (2011). Linguistic justice for Europe and for the world. Oxford University Press.
Waksman, S., & Shohamy, E. (2010). Decorating the city of Tel Aviv-Jaffa for its centennial: Complementary narratives via linguistic landscape. In E. Shohamy, E. Ben-Rafael, & M. Barni (Eds.), Linguistic landscape in the city (pp. 57-73). Multilingual Matters.
Wang, A. L. (2019). Developing cross-cultural exchange projects: A step-by step guide. Nova Science Publishers.
Wang, H. Z., & Chang, S. M. (2002). The commodification of international marriages: Cross-border marriage business in Taiwan and Viet Nam. International Migration, 40(6), 93-116.
Wang, J. J. (2021). Geosemiotic analysis of signs in the linguistic cityscape of China, International Journal of Language and Linguistics, 9(4), pp. 226-232. DOI: 10.11648/j.ijll.20210904.23.
Wang, L. Y. (2021). English Language Education in the National Development Planning of Modern Taiwan, International Journal of Taiwan Studies, 5(1), 42-58. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/24688800-20211139
Wiley, T. G. (1996). Language planning and policy. In S. L. McKay & N. H. Hornberger (Eds.), Sociolinguistics and language teaching (pp. 103-147). Cambridge University Press.
Williams, Q. E., & Lanza, E. (2016). The visualization of multilingualism and voice in spaces of consumption: Linguistic landscaping in South African urban space. In R. Blackwood, E. Lanza, & H. Woldemariam, (Eds.). Negotiating and constesting identities in linguistic landscapes (pp. 233-249). Bloomsbury.
Wolcott, H. F. (1988), Ethnographic research in education. In R.M. Jaeger (ed.) Complementary methods for research in education (pp. 187-210). American Education Research Association.
Wu, M. H. (2009). Language planning and policy in Taiwan: Past, present, and future. Working Papers in Educational Linguistics (WPEL), 24(2), 99-118. 
Yavari, S. (2012). Linguistic landscape and language policies: A comparative study of Linköping University and ETH Zürich [Unpublished thesis]. Linköping University, Sweden.
Zhang, Y. Z. (2020, March 12). Taoyuan and Zhongli, who is Taiwan railway big station? Net show data shouts '’the answer is not surprising’. United Daily News. https://udn.com/news/story/120911/4408719
Zhao, M. (2020). À Paris, on ne sort jamais sans son accessoire tendance: A mixed methods linguistic landscape study of signs used in France, Italy, and the Netherlands during the COVID-19 pandemic [Unpublished thesis]. Leiden University, Netherlands.