本研究擬在考量母親使用食品營養標籤下探討母親就業對小孩肥胖的影響，母親就業雖會造成小孩肥胖機率增加，若就業的母親購買食品時使用食品營養標籤，預期對小孩肥胖機率有緩和效果。本研究擬分析民國90年『國民健康訪問調查』(National Health Interview Survey, NHIS)(2001) 資料，擬先利用 bivariate probit model with IVs 模型探討母親就業對小孩 (0-3、3-6與6-12歲) 肥胖的影響效果，以托育成本、家庭人口數、是否僅生產一胎、婚姻狀況與都會區為工具變數處理母親就業對小孩肥胖的內生性問題。再者，考量母親食品營養標籤使用擬以是否注意食品成份標示與否為衡量變數，並使用 trivariate probit model with IVs 模型探討母親就業、食品營養標籤使用與小肥胖，以母親宗教信仰、成年女性肥胖盛行率與食品營養標籤使用盛行率處理母親食品營養標籤使用對小孩肥胖的內生性問題。另外使用Multivariate Limited Dependent Variable model考量食品營養標籤使用的頻率對於母親就業影響小孩肥胖的弱化影響。實證結果顯示：母親就業對小孩肥胖為正向影響，隨著小孩年紀增長其影響效果遞增；母親食品營養標籤使用對小孩肥胖為負向影響，隨小孩年紀增長其影響效果遞減。母親食品營養標籤使用弱化母親就業對小孩肥胖的影響，以小孩3歲到6歲的弱化效果較明顯。母親食品營養標籤使用頻率越高，弱化就業衝擊小孩肥胖發生機率以3歲到6歲小孩比較明顯。

More and more evidence in support of the positive relation between maternal employment and child obesity has been provided by researchers during the last decade. This study examines whether maternal nutritional label use is a moderating factor upon the positive relation by analyzing the NHIS (2001) of Taiwan . Using the trivariate probit model, it finds that maternal nutritional label use provides a statistically significant moderating effect for children with aged 3-6. However, it is not statistically significant for the children aged 0-2 or 7-12. This suggests that the food policy promoting nutritional label use, in order to reduce the probability of child obesity, is relatively more effective for a mother who has a child aged 3-6. Using the multivariate limited dependent variable model, the result is similar.

目錄
目錄 ..................................................................................................................................Ⅰ
表目錄 ..............................................................................................................................Ⅱ
母親就業、食品營養標籤使用與小孩肥胖 ............................................................... 1
第一章  前言 .................................................................................................................. 1
第二章  資料來源與變數定義 .................................................................................... 8
    第一節  資料來源 ................................................................................................. 8
    第二節  資料處理 ................................................................................................. 9
    第三節  變數定義與敘述統計 ........................................................................... 10
第三章  實證模型設定 ................................................................................................. 19
第一節 Bivariate Probit 模型 ....................................................................... 19
第二節 Trivariate Probit 模型 ...................................................................... 20
第三節 Multivariate Limited Dependent Variable 模型 ....................... 23
第四章  實證結果 ......................................................................................................... 26
第一節 Bivariate Probit 結果 ........................................................................ 26
第二節 Trivariate Probit 結果 ...................................................................... 27
第三節 Multivariate Limited Dependent Variable 結果 ........................ 31
第四節 討論 ........................................................................................................... 33
第五章  結論 .................................................................................................................. 47
    第一節 結論 ............................................................................................................ 47
    第二節 研究限制與未來發展 .............................................................................. 47
參考文獻 .......................................................................................................................... 49
附錄 .................................................................................................................................. 53
表目錄
表一  小孩樣本敘述統計表 .................................................................................... 13
表二  平均托育成本 ................................................................................................. 14
表三  小孩肥胖比率統計表 .................................................................................... 15
表四  母親敘述統計表 ............................................................................................ 16
表五  家戶敘述統計表 ............................................................................................ 17
表六  區域盛行率 .................................................................................................... 17
表七  食品營養標籤使用頻率與小孩肥胖比率關係........................................... 18
表八  母親就業與小孩肥胖， bivariate probit 模型估計結果 ............... 35
表九  Trivariate probit結果，0歲到3歲小孩(0≦AGE＜3) ..................... 36
表十  Trivariate probit結果，3歲到6歲小孩(3≦AGE＜6) ..................... 37
表十一  Trivariate probit 結果，6歲到12歲小孩(6≦AGE＜12) ........... 38
表十二  小孩肥胖(cobe)預測機率......................................................................... 39
表十三  小孩肥胖預測機率，母親為非肥胖(mobe=0)....................................... 40
表十四  小孩肥胖預測機率，母親為非肥胖(mobe=1)....................................... 41
表十五  工具變數檢定.............................................................................................. 42
表十六  MLDV 結果，0歲到3歲小孩(0≦AGE＜3) ........................................... 43
表十七  MLDV 結果，3歲到6歲小孩(3≦AGE＜6) .......................................... 44
表十八  MLDV 結果，6歲到12歲小孩(6≦AGE＜12) ....................................... 45
表十九  母親食品營養標籤使用頻率(LU) ordered probit邊際效果 ........ 46
附錄 .............................................................................................................................. 53
附表一  WHO-小孩性別、年紀肥胖定義表 .......................................................... 53
附表二  台灣地區十五至六十四歲已婚女性托育子女之平均費用按地區別分
......................................................................................................................................... 54
附表三  食品營養標籤order probit 結果 ....................................................... 55
附表四  Trivariate probit結果，0歲到3歲小孩(0≦AGE＜3)，更改食品營養標籤使用定義................................................................................................................ 56
附表五  Trivariate probit結果，3歲到6歲小孩(3≦AGE＜6)，更改食品營養標籤使用定義................................................................................................................ 57
附表六  Trivariate probit結果，6歲到12歲小孩(6≦AGE＜12)，更改食品營養標籤使用定義............................................................................................................ 58

參考文獻

中文部份

1. 行政院主計處-2005年人力資源統計年報

2. 食品衛生管理法

3. 衛署食字第0九000五七一二一號，公告「市售包裝食品營養標示規範」及「市售包裝食品營以宣稱規範」

4. BabyLife育兒生活雜誌，2006年5月號，封面故事：四歲 種下肥胖基因

5. 台灣國民營養健康變遷，1997年至2002年

6. 鄒孟婷、鄒孟文(2003)「健康知識、教育程度與肥胖之關係」，《台灣衛誌》22 (4)：295-307。

7. 鄒孟婷(2006) 「台灣成年女性肥胖、自覺肥胖和健康知識與教育程度之關係」，《台灣家醫誌》16 (4): 237-249

8. 台灣地區婦女婚育與就業調查統計，民國八十九年與民國九十二年

英文部分

1. Averett S., and Korenman S., (1996), “The Economic Reality of the Beauty Myth.” Journal of Human Resources 31:304–330.

2. Andersen, R.E., Crespo, C.J., Bartlett, S.J., Cheskin, L.J., and Pratt, M., (1998), “Relationship of Physical Activity and Television Watching with Body Weight and Level of Fatness Among Children: Results from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey”, Journal of the American Medical Association, 279(12): 938-942.

3. Anderson, P.M., Butcher, K.F., and Levine, P.B., (2003a), “Economic Perspectives on Childhood Obesity.” Economic Perspectives 3Q:30-48

4. Anderson, P.M., Butcher, K.F., and Levine, P.B., (2003b), “Maternal Employment and Overweight Children.” Journal of Health Economics 22: 477-504

5. Bouchard, C., (1997). “Obesity in Adulthood—the Importance of Childhood and Parental Obesity.” New England Journal of Medicine Vol.337 No.13: 926–927.

6. Cawley J. (2004). “The Impact of Obesity on Wages.” Journal of Human Resources 39(2):451–474.

7. Cawley J., and Liu, F., (2007). “Maternal Employment and Childhood Obesity: a Search for Mechanisms in Time Use Data.” National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 13600, http://www.nber.org/papers/w13600

8. Chia, Y.F., (2008), “Maternal Labour Supply and Childhood Overweight and Obesity in Canada: Evidence from the NLSCY” Canadian Journal of Economics, Vol.41, Iss.1, pp.217-242.

9. Classen, T., and Hokayem, C., (2005). “Childhood Influences on Youth Obesity.” Economics and Human Biology 3:165-187.

10. Dietz, W.H., (1997). “ Periods of risk in childhood for the development of adult obesity—what do we need to learn?” Journal of Nutrition 127, 1884S–1886S.

11. Drichoutis, A., Lazaridis, P., and Nayga Jr., R.M., (2005) “Nutrition Knowledge and Consumer Use of Nutritional Food Labels.” European Review of Agricultural Economics Vol. 32 (1) pp.93–118.

12. Fertig, A., Glomm, G., and Tchernis, R., (2006). “The Connection between Maternal Employment and Childhood Obesity: Inspecting the Mechanism.” Center For Applied Economics And Policy Research Working Paper #2006-020.

13. Garcia, E., Labeaga, J.M., and Ortega, C., (2006). “Maternal Employment and Childhood Obesity in Spain.” Working Paper FEDEA – DT 2006-17

14. Gortmaker, S.L., Must, A., Sobol, A.M., Peterson, K., Colditz G.A., and Dietz, W.H., (1996), “Television Viewing as a Cause of Incresing Obesity among Children in the United States, 1986-1990”, Archives of Pedriatrics and Adolescents Medicine, Vol.150, No.4, pp 356-362.

15. Gracia, A., Loureiro, M., and Nayga Jr., R. M., (2007), “Do Consumer Perceive Benefits from the Implementation of a EU Mandatory Nutritional Labeling Program?” Food Policy 32: 160-174

16. Greene, W. H. (1998)”Gender economics courses in liberal arts colleges: further
results,” Journal of Economic Education, 29(4): 291–300.

17. Greene, W. H. (2003), Econometric Analysis (5th edn), Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ.

18. Johnson, E., McInnes, M.M., and Shinogle, J.A. (2006). “What is the
Economic Cost of Overweight Children?” Eastern Economic Journal, Vol. 32 No.1: 171-187.

19. Kenkel, D. S., (1991), “Health Behavior, Health Knowledge, and Schooling.” The Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 99, No. 2 pp. 287-305

20. Klesges, R.C., Stein, R.J., Eck, L.H., Isbell, T.R., and Klesges, L.M., (1991). “Parental Influence on Food Selection in Young Children and its Relationships to Childhood Obesity.” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 53:859–864.

21. Knapp, L.G. and Seaks, T.G., (1998).”A Hausman test for a dummy variable in probit,” Applied Economics Letters, 5:321–323.

22. Liu E, Hsiao, C., Matsumoto, T., and Chou, S. (2009). “Maternal Full-Time Employment and Childhood Obesity: Parametric, Semi-Parametric, and Non-Parametric Assessment.” Journal of Econometric, doi: 10.1016/j.jeconom.2009.02.003

23.Loureiro M. L., Sanz-de-Galdeano A., and Vuri D., (2006). “Smoking Habits: Like Father, Like Son, Like Mother, Like Daughter.” Discussion Paper No. 2279.

24. Maddala, G. S. (1983), Limited-Dependent and Qualitative Variables in Econometrics, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.

25. Must, A. and Strauss, R.S. (1999), “Risks and Consequences of Childhood and Adolescent Obesity.” International Journal of Obesity Related Metabolic Disorders 1523-1529

26. Nayga Jr., R. M., (2000), “ Schooling, Health Knowledge and Obesity.” Applied Economics, 32, 815-822

27. Norton, E.C., Bieler, G.S., Ennett, S.T. and Zarkin, G.A., (1996),”Analysis of 
prevention program effectiveness with clustered data using generalized estimating 
equations,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 5, 919-926.

28. Phipps, S.A., Lethbridge, L., and Burton, P., (2006). “Long-Run Consequences of Parental Paid Work Hours for Child Overweight Status in Canada.” Social Science & Medicine 62:977–986.

29. Power, C., Lake, J.K., and Cole, T.J., (1997). “ Measurement and Long-term Health Risks of Child and Adolescent Fatness.” International Journal of Obesity 21: 507–526.

30. Proctor, M.H., Moore, L.L., Gao, D., Cupples, L.A., Bradlee, M.L., Hood, M.Y. and Ellison, R.C., (2003), “Television Viewing and Change in Body Fat from Preschool to Early Adolescence: The Framingham Children’s Study”, International Journal of Obesity, Vol. 27, pages 827-833.

31. Ruhm, C.J. (2008). “Maternal Employment and Adolescent Development.” Labour Economics 15: 958-983

32. Scholder, S.V.H.K.,(2008), “Maternal Employment and Overweight Children: Does Timing Matter?” Health Economics 17: 889-906

33. Takahashi, E., Yoshida, K., Sugimori, H., Miyakawa, M., Izuno, T., Yamagami, T., and Kagamimori, S., (1999). “Influence Factors on the Development of Obesity in 3-Year-Old Children based on the Toyama Study.” Preventive Medicine 28:293–296.


34. Tsou, meng-wen, Liu, jin-tan, (2006), “Obesity, Schooling and Health Knowledge: An Empirical Study of Taiwanese Women.” Education economics, 14, 1, 89-106.

35. Variyam, J. N., Blaylock, J., Lin, B.H., Ralston, K., and Smallwood, D., (1999), “Mother’s Nutrition Knowledge and Children’s Dietary Intakes.” American Agricultural Economics 81: 373-384

36. Variyam, J. N., (2001), “Overweight Children : Is Parental Nutrition Knowledge a Factor?” FoodReview Vol.24 Iss.2 : 18-22

37. Variyam, J. N., and Cawley, J., (2006), “Nutrition labels and obesity.” National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 11956, http://www.nber.org/papers/w11956

38. Wang, Guijing, and Dietz, W.H., (2002). “Economic Burden of Obesity in Youths Aged 6 to 17 Years: 1979-1999.” Pediatrics, Vol.109 No.5 : 81-86.

39. Zhu, A. (2007). “The Effect of Maternal Employment on the Likelihood of a Child Being Overweight.” Discussion Paper 2007/17. School of Economics, UNSW, Sydney 2052 Australia