習得第二語言的重要性在全球化迅速發展的二十世紀中無可辯駁。由於溝通意願（WTC）是獲得溝通能力的先驅，與其相關的研究也引起了廣泛關注。在2000年代初期，台灣教育部（MOE）調整了國家教育課綱，允許各校在小學階段實施英語教育。許多學校也隨後開始研發從小學至中學的九年雙語教育學程，學齡兒童也成為台灣最大的語言學習群之一。
本研究結合質與量的數據收集與分析，旨在（a）探討雙語學生對中文（L1）和英文（L2）的學習態度、動機與WTC之間的相關性；（b）評估WTC是否會因對象、學習情境之不同而有所差異。此研究之量化研究部分於2017年春季首先進行，實施對象為台灣北部一所私立中小學的58名七年級雙語班學生。研究工具包含一份36題的問卷調查。本研究的第二部分基於第一部分的量化研究結果，而有後續的訪談研究。訪談的目的為詳細了解雙語EFL學生的溝通交流習慣。本研究的結果顯示學習態度對中文WTC沒有影響，但學習態度與L2 WTC有正相關性，並受到教育之影響。此外，學生的溝通交流意願在給予明確任務時彰顯最高。此研究的第一部分於2019年5月17日在亞洲語言學習會議上首次發表，並在其2019年會議記錄中登載。
有鑑於此，本文將為促進年輕語言學習者的WTC提供見解。其中包括增進學生與同儕用第二語言聊天的意願，使他們靈活運用語言。最後，調查結果也揭示學生在不同情境下所展現的WTC，並提供可能之教學方法。
關鍵字：溝通意願、台灣雙語學制、L1溝通意願、L2溝通意願、語言學習態度、語言學習動機

The importance of speaking a second language is now irrefutable with rapid 20th century globalization. Subsequently, willingness to communicate (WTC), a theoretical precursor to attaining communicative competency, has also gained widespread attention. In the early 2000s, Taiwan’s Ministry of Education (MOE) adjusted the National curriculum to begin English education in grade school. Soon after the announcement, private schools nationwide started introducing 9 year bilingual educational tracks from lower to middle school. As more and more parents saw the benefits of learning a second language, school aged children quickly became one of the largest language learning demographic in Taiwan.
Nonetheless, despite the shift in demand, most local studies still target university students. Noting such knowledge gap, this study focuses on young bilingual learners that study in a EFL environment. Utilizing a combination of quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis processes, this study aims to (a) examine correlations between attitudes and WTC for both Chinese (L1) and English (L2); and (b) to evaluate how their WTC and communicative habits compare across different situational contexts in scenarios among peers and with adults in the classroom.
The quantitative part 1 of the study was conducted during the Spring of 2017 and informs half of the thesis (Chiang, 2019). Part 1was first presented in 2019 at The Asian Conference on Language Learning on May 17, 2019 and published in their 2019 conference proceedings. 
In the fall of 2017, a 36 question 4 point-Likert survey was given to 58 seventh grade students at a private Elementary and Middle School in Northern Taiwan; results indicate that L1 WTC is more determined by trait influences while L2 WTC is comparably more malleable and influenced by education (attitude has a moderate positive correlation to WTC in L2 but not in L1). Additionally, participants are more WTC in task-based activities in L2, which is consistent with findings on how students are generally more WTC in classes taught in L2 at the private school, regardless of their trait dispositions.
This thesis heavily references part 1 of the study and builds upon its findings with a follow up qualitative interview study (part 2). Elaborating on Taiwanese bilingual EFL students’ communicative habits, the qualitative interviews explains that L1 WTC is more trait based because students are expected to stay quiet during class and defer communication to social settings where trait dispositions largely determines their L1 WTC. L2 WTC on the other hand, is more encouraged in the classroom and more influenced by affective reasons relating to culture, convenience, and individual fluency. Informed with the above, this paper will provide insights to ways educators can better promote young learners’ WTC in the classroom. Furthermore, findings will also reveal differences in WTC across various contexts such as with teachers vs. peers or in different academic vs. social constructs. Finally, teaching techniques will be discussed in response to key findings.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE............................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................1
1.1 Background......................................................................................................1 1.2 Bilingual L2 programs and the Taiwanese context..........................................4 1.2.1 Bilingual L2 programs..........................................................................4 1.2.2 Bilingual schools in Taiwan..................................................................5 1.3 Purpose of the study.........................................................................................7 1.4 Research questions...........................................................................................7 1.5 Significance of the study..................................................................................8 1.6 Outline of thesis...............................................................................................9 1.7 Definition of terms.........................................................................................11
CHAPTER TWO .........................................................................................................12
LITERATURE REVIEW.............................................................................................12
2.1 Willingness to communicate..........................................................................12 2.1.1 McCroskey’s willingness-to-communicate (WTC) model.................13 2.1.2 Clement’s and MacIntyre’s willingness-to-communicate model .......14 2.1.3 Wen and Clément’s (2003) WTC model.............................................17
2.2 Language learning and motivation.................................................................21 2.2.1 Gardner’s socio-educational model ....................................................22 2.2.2 Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory ........................................25 2.2.3 Dörnyei’s L2 motivational self system...............................................28
2.3 Foreign language anxiety...............................................................................29 2.3.1 Second language learning anxiety ......................................................30 2.3.1 Sources of second language learning anxiety ..................................... 34 2.3.2 Foreign language anxiety and young learners ....................................35
CHAPTER THREE .....................................................................................................38
METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................38
3.1 Overview........................................................................................................38 3.2 Participants.....................................................................................................39 3.3 Instrumentation ..............................................................................................40
 VII
3.3.1 Questionnaire......................................................................................41
3.3.2 Student interview ................................................................................43 3.4 Data collection ...............................................................................................45 3.5 Data analysis ..................................................................................................47
3.5.1 Statistical analysis in SPSS.................................................................48 3.5.2 Content analysis..................................................................................49
CHAPTER FOUR........................................................................................................50
RESULTS..................................................................................................................... 50
4.1 The effects of attitude on L1 and L2 WTC....................................................50 4.1.1 Quantitative results .............................................................................51 4.1.2 Qualitative results ...............................................................................57
4.2 Effects of situational context on L1 and L2 WTC.........................................62 4.2.1 Quantitative results .............................................................................63 4.2.2 Qualitative results ...............................................................................66
CHAPTER FIVE .........................................................................................................75
DISCUSSION..............................................................................................................75
5.1 Discussion on the effects of attitudes toward L1 and L2 on WTC ................ 76 5.2 Discussion on the effects of situational context on L1 and L2 WTC ............82
CHAPTER SIX............................................................................................................90
CONCLUSION............................................................................................................90
6.1 Summary........................................................................................................90 6.2 Pedagogical implications ...............................................................................92 6.3 Limitations of the study .................................................................................94 6.4 Suggestions for future studies........................................................................96
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................98 APPENDICES ........................................................................................................... 110

REFERENCES
Alptekin, C. (2002). Towards intercultural communicative competence in ELT. English Language Teaching Journal, 56(1), 57-64.
Al-Shehri, A. S. (2009). Motivation and vision: The relation between the ideal L2 self, imagination and visual style. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda. (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp.164-171). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Burgoon, J.K. (1976). The unwillingness-to-communicate scale: Development and validation. Communication Monographs, 43(1), 60-69.
Busse, V. and Walter, C. (2013). Foreign Language Learning Motivation in Higher Education: A Longitudinal Study of Motivational Changes and Their Causes. Modern Language Journal, 97(1), 435-456.
Chan, B. & McCroskey, J. C. (1987). The WTC scale as a predictor of classroom participation. Communication Research Reports, 4(1), 47-50.
Chang, H. H. (2005). The relationship between extrinsic/intrinsic motivation and language learning strategies among college students of English in Taiwan. [Unpublished master thesis]. Ming Chuan University, China.
Chang, Y. F. (2008). Parents’ attitudes toward the English education policy in Taiwan. 98
 
Asia Pacific Education Review, 9(4), 423-435.
Chiang, A (2019). L1 and L2 Attitudes and Willingness to Communicate in Taiwanese
Middle School Bilingual Program. In The Asian Conference on Language Learning 2019: Official Conference Proceedings (pp. 319-337). Tokyo: The International Academic Forum.
Clement, R., Baker, S. C., & MacIntyre, P. D., (2003). Willingness to communicate in a second language: the effect of context, norms, and vitality. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 22(2), 190-209.
Crystal, D. (2003). English as a Global Language (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 69.
Csizér, K., & Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The internal structure of language learning motivation and its relationship with language choice and learning effort. The Modern Language Journal, 89(1), 19–36.
Csizer, K., & Lukacs, G. (2010). The comparative analysis of motivation, attitudes and selves: The case of English and German in Hungary. System, 38(1), 1–13.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & McCormack, J. (1986). The influence of teachers. Phi Delta Kappan, 67(6), 415-19.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York, NY: Plenum.
 99

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Self-Determination Theory: A macro theory of human motivation, development, and health. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 49(1), 182-185.
Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The L2 motivational self system. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 9-42). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Dörnyei, Z. (2014). Motivation in second language learning. In M. Celce-Murcia, D. M. Brinton, & M. A. Snow (Eds.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language (4th ed., pp. 518-531). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
Fushino, K. (2010). Causal relationships between communication confidence, beliefs about group work, and willingness to communicate in foreign language group work. TESOL Quarterly, 44(4), 700–724.
Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitude and motivation. London, UK: Edward Arnold.
Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1959). Motivational variables in second language acquisition. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 7(2), 266-272.
Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1972). Attitudes and motivation in second-language learning. Rowley, MA: Newbury House Publishers.
Gardner, R.C., & Macintyre, P.D. (1991). An instrumental motivation in language 100
 
study: Who says it is not effective? Studies in Second Language Acquisition,
13(4), 57-72.
Genesee, F. (1987). Learning through two languages: Studies of immersion and
bilingual education. Cambridge, MA: Newbury House.
Gardner, R. C., & Smythe, P. C. (1975). Second language acquisition: A social
psychological approach (Research Bulletin No. 332). Ontario: University of
Western Ontario.
Gardner, R. C., Smythe, P. C., & Brunet, G. R. (1977). Intensive second language
study: Effects on attitudes, motivation, and French achievement. Language Learning, 27(3), 243-261. Gerald M. Phillips, Kent A. Sokoloff. (1979). An end to anxiety treating speech problems with rhetoric therapy, In Journal of Communication Disorder. 12(5). 385-397.
Gürsoy, E. & Akin, F. (2013). Is Younger Really Better? Anxiety about Learning a Foreign Language in Turkish Children. Social Behavior and Personality, 41(5), 827-842.
Hashimoto, T. (2002). The constructive approach to the dynamical view of language. In Cangelosi, A. & Parisi, D. (Eds.) Stimulating the Evolution of Language (pp. 307-324). London: Springer Verlag.
Horwitz, E. K. (1986). Preliminary evidence for the reliability and validity of a 101
 
foreign language anxiety scale. TESOL Quarterly, 20, 559-562.
Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B. & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom
anxiety. Modern Language Journal, 70, 125-132.
Hu, Y. T. (2014). Chinese and English Language Competencies of Bilingual Students
in Year 7 of Taiwan: Comparison with General Education Students in Taiwan and
the United States. [Unpublished master thesis] Tamkang University. Kanat-Mutluoğlu, A. (2016). The influence of ideal l2 self, academic self-concept and
intercultural communicative competence on willingness to communicate in a
foreign language. Eurasian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 2(2), 27-46. Keaten, J. A., & Kelly, L. (2000). Reticence: An affirmation and revision.
Communication Education, 49(2), 165–177.
Kim, T.-Y. (2006). Motivation and attitudes toward foreign language learning in as
socio-politically motivated constructs: The case of Korean high school students.
The Journal of Asia TEFL. 3(2). 165- 192.
Kim, T.Y. (2010). Reductionism, activity theory, and L2 motivation research: Toward
new concepts and definitions. The SNU Journal of Education Research, 19(3),
1-32.
Knell, E.& Chi, Y. P. (2012). The Roles of Motivation, Affective Attitudes, and
Willingness to Communicate Among Chinese Students in Early English 102
 
Immersion Programs. International Education, 41(2).
Knell, E. (2010). A longitudinal study of English immersion and literacy in Xi’an,
China. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Utah.
Knell, E., Siegel, L. S., Chiang, H.Y., Zhao, L., Pei, M., Zhao, W., & Chi, Y. P. (2007).
Early English immersion and literacy in Xi’an, China. The Modern Language
Journal, 91(4), 395-417.
Krashen, S. D. (1975), The critical period for language acquisition and its possible
bases. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 263(2), 211-224.
Krashen, S. D., & Terrell, T. D. (1983). The natural approach: Language acquisition
in the classroom. New York: Pergamon Press.
Kunt, N. (1997). Anxiety and beliefs about language learning: A study of
Turkish-speaking university students learning English in North Cyprus.
[Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation], The University of Texas, Austin.
Lamb, M. (2009). Situating the L2 self: Two Indonesian school learners of English. In
Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2
self (pp. 229-247). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Lin, Y. (2018). Taiwanese EFL Learners’ Willingness to Communicate in English in
the Classroom: Impacts of Personality, Affect, Motivation, and Communication Confidence. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 28(2), 101-113.
 103

Loewen, S., Li, S., Fei, F., Thompson, A., Nakatsukasa, K., Ahn, S. & Chen, X. (2009), Second Language Learners' Beliefs About Grammar Instruction and Error Correction. The Modern Language Journal, 93(3), 91-104.
Lu, Y. (2007). Willingness to Communicate in Intercultural Interactions Between Chinese and Americans. [Unpublished masters thesis]. University of Wyoming.
MacIntyre, P. D. (1994). Variables underlying willingness to communicate: A causal analysis. Communication Research Reports, 11(2), 135-142.
MacIntyre, P. D., Babin, P. A., & Clément, R. (1999). Willingness to communicate: Antecedents and consequences. Communication Quarterly, 47(2), 215-229. MacIntyre, P. D., Baker, S. C., Clément, R., & Conrod, S. (2001). Willingness to
communicate, social support, and language-learning orientations of immersion
students. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 23(2), 369–388. MacIntyre, P. D., Baker, S. C., Clement, R., & Donovan, L. A. (2003). Sex and age
effects on willingness to communicate, anxiety, perceived competence, and L2 motivation among junior high school French immersion students. Language Learning, 53(suppl), 137-165.
MacIntyre, P. D., & Charos, C. (1996). Personality, attitudes, and affect as predictors of second language communication. Journal of Language and Social Psychology,
15(2), 3–26.
 104

MacIntyre, P. D., & Clément, R. (1996). A model of willingness to communicate in a second language: The concept, its antecedents and implications. Paper presented at the World Congress of Applied Linguistics, Jyváskylá, Finland.
MacIntyre, P. D., Clément, R., Dőrnyei, Z., & Noels, K. A. (1998). Conceptualizing willingnessto communicate in a L2: A situational model of L2 confidence and affiliation. Modern Language Journal, 82(1), 545-562.
MacIntyre, P. D., & Gardner, R. C. (1989). Anxiety and second language learning: Toward a theoretical clarification. Language Learning, 39(1), 251-275.
MacIntyre, P. D., & Gardner, R. C. (1994). The subtle effects of language anxiety on cognitive processing in the second language. Language Learning, 44(2), 283-305.
McCroskey, J. C., & Baer, J. E. (1985). Willingness to communicate: The construct and its measurement. Paper presented at the annual convention of the Speech Communication Association, Denver, CO.
McCroskey, J. C., & Richmond, V. P. (1990). Willingness to communicate: Differing cultural perspectives. Southern Communication Journal, 56(1), 72–77. McCroskey, J. C., & McCroskey, L. L. (1986a). Correlates of willingness to
communicate. Paper presented at the annual convention of the Western Speech Communication Association, Tucson.
 105

McCroskey, J. C. & McCroskey, L. L. (1986b). Self report as an approach to measuring communication competence. Paper presented at the annual convention of the Central States Speech Association, Cincinnati, OH.
Matsuoka, R. (2005). Willingness to communicate among Japanese college students. In Proceedings of the 10th Conference of Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics (pp. 165–176). http://www.paaljapan.org/resources/proceedings10/pdfs/matsuoka.pd
Meierkord, C. (2012). Interactions across Englishes: Linguistic choices in local and international contact situations. Cambridge: Cambridge University.
Ministry of Education (MOE) (2009) Regulations for the Establishment of Private Elementary and Secondary Schools’ International Curriculum Programs (In Chinese) On WWW at http://www.edu.tw/files/site_content/EDU01/18-2.pdf
Mihaljević Djigunović, J. (2009). Individual Differences in Early Language Programmes. In Nikolov, M. (Ed.), The Age Factor and Early Language Learning (pp. 199-225). Berlin-New York: Monton de Gruyter.
Munezane, Y. (2013). Attitudes, affect and ideal L2 self as predictors of willingness to communicate. EUROSLA Yearbook, 13(1), 176-198.
Munezane, Y. (2015). Enhancing willingness to communicate: Relative effects of visualization and goal setting. The Modern Language Journal, 99(1), 175-191.
  106

Nikolov, M. (2001). A study of unsuccessful language learners. In Z. Dornyei & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Motivation and second language acquisition (pp.147-172). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Noels, K. A. (2001a). Learning Spanish as a second language: Learners’ orientations and perceptions of their teachers’ communication style. Language Learning, 51(2), 107-144.
Öz, H. (2016). Role of the ideal L2 self in predicting willingness to communicate of EFL students. In I. J. Mirici, I. H. Erten, H. Öz, and I. Vodopija-Krstanović (Eds.), Research papers on teaching English as an additional language (pp. 163-182), Rijeka, Croatia: Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Rijeka.
Peng, J. & Woodrow, L. (2010), Willingness to Communicate in English: A Model in the Chinese EFL Classroom Context. Language Learning, 60(1), 834-876.
Phillips, G.M. (1984). Reticence: A perspective on social withdrawal. In J.A. Daly & J.C. McCroskey (Eds.), Avoiding communication: Shyness, reticence, and communication apprehension (pp. 51-66). Beverly Hills: Sage.
Pite, D. (1996). The influence of anxiety upon achievement in EFL by Japanese students. International Congress of Psychology, 26(3), 1-34.
Pratt, D. D. (1992). Chinese conceptions of learning and teaching: A Westerner’s 107
 
attempt at understanding. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 11(1),
301–319.
Richmond, V. P., & McCroskey, J. C. (1998). Communication: Apprehension,
Avoidance, and Effectiveness, 5th edition. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and
Bacon.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of
intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist,
55(1), 68-78.
Swain, M., & Lapkin, S. (1982). Evaluating bilingual education: A Canadian case
study. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
Taguchi, T., Magid, M., & Papi, M. (2009). The L2 motivational self-system
among Japanese, Chinese and Iranian learners of English. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 66–97). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Truitt, S. (1995). Anxiety and beliefs about language learning: A study of Korean university students learning English. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation], the University of Texas, Austin.
Vallerand, R. J., Blais, M. R., Briere, N. M., & Pelletier, L. G. (1989). Construction and validation of the Motivation toward Education Scale. Canadian Journal of
 108

Behaviour Science, 21(3), 323-349.
Warden, C. A., & Lin, H. J. (2000). Existence of integrative motivation in an Asian
EFL setting. Foreign Language Annals, 33(5), 535–547.
Wen, W. P., & Clément, R. (2003). A Chinese conceptualization of willingness to
communicate in ESL. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 16(1), 18-38.
Wu, X. (2003). Intrinsic motivation and young language learners: The impact of the
classroom environment. System, 31(1), 501-517.
Yashima, T. (2002). Willingness to communicate in a second language: The Japanese
EFL context. The Modern Language Journal, 86(1), 54-66.
Yashima, T. (2012). Willingness to communicate: Momentary volition that results in
L2 behaviour. In S. Mercer, S. Ryan, & M. Williams (Eds.), Psychology for
language learning (pp. 119-135). Hampshire, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. Yashima, T., Zenuk-Nishide, L., & Shimizu, K. (2004). The influence of attitudes and
effect on willingness to communicate and second language communication.
Language Learning, 54(1), 119-152.
You, C. J., & Dörnyei, Z. (2016). Language learning motivation in China: Results of a
large-scale stratified survey. Applied Linguistics, 37(4), 495-516.