美墨農業擁有密切的貿易關係。在當今，酪梨日益廣受歡迎，同時也成為了美墨農業貿易中重要的一項農產品。在2020年，美國進口了近一百萬噸的墨西哥酪梨，以滿足國內的酪梨消費需求。然而如今墨西哥酪梨在美國市場中的成功並非一帆風順。美國於 1914 年首次對墨西哥酪梨頒布了進口禁令，鑒於墨西哥酪梨存在病蟲害問題；而酪梨進口，將導致美國境內的酪梨園遭受病蟲害的威脅。墨西哥酪梨經歷了近一個世紀的禁令。在北美自由貿易協定談判後，美國對墨西哥的酪梨禁令逐漸放寬限制；美國允許墨西哥的特定地區放寬酪梨進口限制。然而，加利福尼亞州酪梨協會代表加州酪梨種植者，致力於抵制墨西哥酪梨的進口，並捍衛加州酪梨產業全體的利益。美墨酪梨產業經歷了長期鬥爭；儘管今日，墨西哥酪梨允許在全美50州進行銷售，但這僅限於獲得批准和認證的墨西哥酪梨園（主要在米卻肯州）。此外世貿組織的衛生和植物檢疫措施(SPS) 協議和非關稅壁壘增為美國對墨西哥酪梨進口提供了緩衝效果，將大部分墨西哥的酪梨拒之門外。

本論文，將從國際農業貿易的角度出發，以宏觀及全面的視角來檢視農業貿易的進程，加以分析自由貿易及貿易保護主義。 在了解國際農業貿易之後，將回顧墨西哥的農業發展進程，來探討墨西哥近一世紀以來的農業政策，分析墨西哥如何走向自由貿易的道路上。而追隨自由貿易也為墨西哥酪梨打開了進入美國市場的大門。

Mexico and the US shared a close relation in agricultural trade. In the contemporary, avocados are gaining popularity and becoming one of the important agricultural products in the trade between the US and Mexico. In 2020, the US imported about 1 million tons of avocado from Mexico, in order to supply the domestic avocado demand. However, the success of today's Mexican avocado in the US isn't all smooth sailing. The US promulgated the first importation ban on Mexico avocados in 1914, fearing the avocado pests will introducing in the US, causing an epidemic throughout the US avocado orchards. NAFTA uplifted the nearly century ban on the Mexican avocado, the US opens its’ market to certain regions of Mexico avocado. However, California Avocado Association represents the California avocado growers’ interests, who have been confronting the authority, to limit the import of avocado from Mexico. Long-lasting combat between Mexico and the US avocado industry, even though in present-day, commercial shipments of avocados from Mexico allowed to distribute in all 50 states, however, this only limited to those approved and certified orchards (mostly in Michoacán). Non-tariff barriers and WTO’s Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) Agreement buffed the importation of Mexico avocados, which provides the US a blockade that keeps most of Mexico avocados out of states. 

In the thesis began with the perspective of international agricultural trade, to examine the process of agricultural trade, giving a comprehensive perspective, and analyze free trade and trade protectionism. After understanding the international agricultural trade, we will review Mexico’s agricultural development process, discuss its agricultural policies in the past century, and analyze how Mexico adopted free trade. And by following free trade approach, it provides a passage for Mexican avocados to gain access to the US market.

Table of Contents
Chapter 1. Introduction	1
1. 1.	 Research Motivation	2
1. 2.	 Objectives	3
1. 3.	 Literature Review	4
1. 4.	 Research Questions	7
1. 5.	 Methodology and Limitation	8
1. 6.	 Parts of Study	9
Chapter 2. International Trade and Agriculture Trade	11
2. 1. 	International Trade Theories	12
2. 1. 1.	Mercantilism	13
2. 1. 2.	Liberalism and Free Trade	13
2. 1. 3.	Agricultural Trade	15
2. 1. 4.	Protectionism	16
2. 2. 	Development of the Agricultural Trade Regime	17
2. 2. 1.	Uruguay Round	22
2. 2. 2.	Doha Round	27
2. 3. 	Agricultural Trade Barriers and Disputes	30
2. 4. 	Conclusion	35
Chapter 3. Historical Development of Mexico’s Agricultural Sector	37
3. 1. 	Pre-NAFTA: Mexico’s Agricultural Development	37
3. 2. 	Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI)	42
3. 3. 	Mexico Agricultural Development Toward to Neoliberalism	48
3. 4. 	The Adaptation of Mexican Agricultural Policies to NAFTA	52
3. 4. 1. Ernesto Zedillo (1994-2000)	53
3. 4. 2.	Vicente Fox (2000-2006)	55
3. 4. 3.	Felipe Calderón (2006-2012)	56
3. 4. 4.	Enrique Peña Nieto (2012-2018)	58
3. 4. 5.	Andrés Manuel López Obrador (2018- present)	60
3. 5. 	Conclusion	62
Chapter 4. Mexico and the US Avocado Trade	65
4. 1. 	Avocado Facts and Development	65
4. 1. 1. 	General Information of Avocado Cultivation	67
4. 1. 2. 	Avocado Global Production Overview	68
4. 1. 3. 	Avocado Global Trade Overview	69
4. 2. 	Mexico Avocado Industry	72
4. 2. 1.	Michoacán Avocado Industry Overview	74
4. 2. 2.	The Expansion of the Michoacán Avocado Industry	75
4. 2. 3.	Emerging of Export Activity of Michoacán Growers	76
4. 2. 4. 	Michoacán Commitment: Reversing the US Avocado Ban	78
4. 2. 5. 	Ban Lifted: The Prosperity of Michoacán Avocado Industry	86
4. 3. 	The US Avocado Industry	90
4. 3. 1.	California Avocado Industry	90
4. 3. 2.	The Rising demand and Avocado Consumption in the US	91
4. 3. 3	Issues and incentives of California Avocado Industry	93
4. 3. 4 	The Implementation of TBT and SPS Against the Mexico Avocado Imports	96
4. 3. 5	The Last Defender of US Avocado Industry: Hass Avocado Board	102
4. 4. 	Conclusion	106
Chapter 5. Conclusion	109
References	117
Appendix	132
Appendix 1. Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures: Text of the Agreement (Article 1-5)	132
Appendix 2. Avocado (Fruit) from Mexico into Continental U.S. Ports, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico	137
Appendix 3. Mexico Avocado Export to the US (2003-2020)	143

List of Figures and Tables:
Tables:
Table 1. Numerical Targets for Agricultural Trade	26
Table 2. World Fresh Fruit Trade by Volume and Value (2018/19)	70
Table 3. Official Mexican Norms for Avocado (NOM-066-FITO-1995)	81
Table 4. Phased Reduction of Shipping Restrictions for Mexican Avocado to the US Market, 1997-2007	84
Table 5. Mexico’s Avocado Industrial Related Standard and Norms	85
Table 6. 1997 The Avocado Ban Restrictions for Mexico Import	100
Table 7. The HAB Assessment Collect and Rebate: 2003-2019	104
Table 8. The US Avocado Promotional Expenditures by Organization:2003-2017	105

Figures:
Figure 1. World’s Avocado Production by Region (2019)	69
Figure 2. World Avocado Trade MY 2003/04- MY 2018/19	71
Figure 3. Main Avocado Import Markets 2019	71
Figure 4. Mexico Agricultural Products Exports to the US in 2020	73
Figure 5. Avocado Consumption in the USA in 2019	93

Chart:
Chart 1. Avocado Producing States in Mexico (2019)	74

Graph:
Graph 1. California Avocado- Evolution of Planted Areas (1920-2018)	94

Books/e-Book:
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Working Papers and Reports:
Ambrozek, Charlotte, Tina L. Saitone, and Richard J. Sexton. Five-Year Evaluation of the Hass Avocado Board’s Promotion Programs: 2013-2017. Mission Viejo, CA, USA: Hass Avocado Board, 2018. https://hassavocadoboard.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/hab-latest-independent-economic-evaluation-2018.pdf 
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Carman, Hoy F., Lan Li, and Richard J. Sexton. “An Economic Evaluation of the Hass Avocado Promotion Order’s First Five Years.” Giannini Foundation Research Report 351, 2009. https://escholarship.org/content/qt4rn0v078/qt4rn0v078.pdf
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Agricultural Marketing Research Center. “Avocado.” Iowa: Iowa State University, October, 2018. https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/fruits/avocados
CEDRSSA. Caso de Exportación: El Aguacate, Mexico City: CEDRSSA, 2017. http://www.cedrssa.gob.mx/files/b/13/54Exportaci%C3%B3n%20aguacate.pdf
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Other Internet Resources:
Avocados From Mexico. “About us.” (n.d.) https://avocadosfrommexico.com/about/
Baranowski, Michael. “The Politics of Farm Labor.” Politics Guys, November 17, 2017. https://politicsguys.com/the-politics-of-farm-labor/#_ftn1
Barone, Adam. “Free Trade Agreement (FTA).” Investopedia, January 29, 2020. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/f/free-trade.asp
Bellamore, Tom. "Mexican Avocados: History… The Full Story." California Avocado Society Yearbook 86 (2003): 51-71. http://avocadosource.com/CAS_Yearbooks/CAS_86_2002/CAS_2002_PG_051-071.pdf
Bloomenthal, Andrew. “Mercantilism.” Investopedia, August 30, 2020. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/mercantilism.asp.
California Avocado Commission. “Alternate Bearing Cycles,” (n.d.) https://www.californiaavocadogrowers.com/growing/how-california-avocado-tree-grows/alternate-bearing-cycles 
California Avocado Commission. “Results of Ag Labor Survey Released,” October 31, 2017. http://www.californiaavocadogrowers.com/articles/results-ag-labor-survey-released
Carbajal, María de la Luz Martín, and Salvador Padilla Hernández. "Avocado Production and the Sectoral Innovation System." Georgia Institute of Technology, 2008. https://smartech.gatech.edu/bitstream/handle/1853/35840/Maria_de_la_luz_martin_Avocado_Production.pdf
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https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.lib.tku.edu.tw/stable/j.ctv6zdc8p.9
Irazabal, Francisco Gardiazabal. "History and Development of the Avocado in Chile." California Avocado Society Yearbook 85 (2001): 113-128. http://www.avocadosource.com/cas_yearbooks/cas_85_2001/cas_2001_pg_113-128.pdf
International Institute for Sustainable Development. “Mexican Government Approves Farm Subsidies as NAFTA Barriers Set to Expire,” March 29, 2007. https://www.iisd.org/gsi/news-events/mexican-government-approves-farm-subsidies-nafta-barriers-set-expire
Global Frost Watch. “Mexico-Michoacan,” (n.d.) https://gfw.global/3wvoLHM
Hass Avocado Board (HAB) and Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche (CIRAD). “Country Profile: Mexico,” 2019. https://hassavocadoboard.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/hab-marketers-country-profiles-2019-mexico.pdf
Hass Avocado Board (HAB) and Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche (CIRAD). “Country Profile: USA California,” 2020. https://hassavocadoboard.com/wp-content/uploads/hab-marketers-country-profiles-2020-california.pdf
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Komorek, Chris. “US Imports Record Number of Mexican Avocados.” Fruit Net. February 09, 2021. http://www.fruitnet.com/americafruit/article/184287/us-imports-record-number-of-mexican-avocados-1
Mondragón, Mauricio, and Valeria López-Portillo. “Will Mexico’s Growing Avocado Industry Harm Its Forests?” World Resources Institute, February 04, 2020. https://www.wri.org/insights/will-mexicos-growing-avocado-industry-harm-its-forests
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News/ Online News
Ash, Andy. “Avocado Prices Have Boomed in the Last Decade — Here's Why They Are So Expensive.” Business Insider, November 04, 2019. https://www.businessinsider.com/why-avocados-are-so-expensive-2019-10
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El Universal. “En Defensa del ‘Oro Verde’, Productores de Aguacate Se Arman Contra Cárteles,” September 23, 2019. https://www.eluniversal.com.mx/estados/en-defensa-del-oro-verde-productores-de-aguacate-se-arman-contra-carteles
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Martínez, María Del Pilar. “Segalmex, Por Tiros Exactos en Precios de Garantía.” El Economista, February 22, 2019. https://www.eleconomista.com.mx/empresas/Segalmex-por-tiros-exactos-en-precios-de-garantia-20190221-0174.html
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Olvera, Dulce. “Peña Prometió un Plan Para Dar Mayor Vitalidad al Campo Pero Ni Siquiera Lo Presentó. Y así se va.” Sin Embargo, September 03, 2018. https://www.sinembargo.mx/03-09-2018/3465424
Skrzycki, Cindy. “It's A Buggy Ride to Disaster, Say Calif. Avocado Growers.” The Washington Post, February 14, 1997. https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1997/02/14/its-a-buggy-ride-to-disaster-say-calif-avocado-growers/f050e512-ac69-47cc-864b-f4aee8c319ef/
Stevenson, Mark. “The World's Hunger for Avocados is Having a Devastating Effect on Mexico.” Associated Press, November 01, 2016. https://www.businessinsider.com/ap-mexico-deforestation-for-avocados-much-higher-than-thought-2016-10
Stillman, Amy and Michael Hirtzer. “Mexico to Decide if GMO Corn Ban Will Apply to Animal Feed.” Bloomberg, January 10, 2021. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-01-09/mexican-officials-to-decide-if-gmo-corn-ban-will-apply-to-feed 
Tirschwell, Peter M. "California Growers Fight Imports with Ads." Maritime News, March 14, 1996. https://www.joc.com/maritime-news/ california_growers_fight_imports_with_ads 19960314.html 
Tirschwell, Peter M. “US Poised to Admit Mexican Avocados as Opposition Mounts.” Maritime News, Jan 10, 1996. https://www.joc.com/maritime-news/us-poised-admit-mexican-avocados-opposition-mounts_19960110.html