菲律賓，印度尼西亞和馬來西亞通過三邊合作安排（TCA）成功地進行了國防合作。該安排的框架規定採用軍事手段作為應對蘇祿-西里伯斯海域海上安全威脅的機制。但是，在成功實施其各個組成部分（如進行協調的海上和空中巡邏，進行協調的陸基演習和一系列港口訪問）之後，非法活動繼續存在。因此，研究人員試圖探索國防合作和軍事方法在應對海上安全威脅（尤其是海上恐怖主義和海盜行為）方面的挑戰和局限性。為了理解威脅的性質，本論文考察了該地區反政府運動和伊斯蘭激進主義出現的歷史淵源。同樣，它解釋了導致當前防禦合作受到限制的各種因素，研究人員認為這些因素是歷史爭端，有限的防禦能力以及對安全合作的國內限制。由於當前的國防合作似乎缺乏解決海洋恐怖主義和海盜行為的複雜性的範圍，因此研究人員不僅提出了僅著眼於國防和軍事合作的TCA，而且還提出了包括整個政府努力的三國合作安排作為解決蘇祿-西里伯斯海洋問題的機制。

The Philippines, Indonesia and Malaysia had successfully engaged in a defense cooperation through Trilateral Cooperation Arrangement (TCA).  The framework of the arrangement stipulates the employment of military approach as a mechanism to address the maritime security threats in the Sulu-Celebes Seas.  However, after successful implementation of its various components such as conduct of coordinated maritime and air patrols, conduct of coordinated land-based exercises and series of port visits, illicit activities continue to exist.  For this reason, the researcher seeks to explore the challenges and limitations of defense cooperation and military approach in addressing maritime security threats particularly maritime terrorism and piracy.  In order to understand the nature of threats, this thesis examines the historical origins of the emergence of anti-government movements and Islamic radicalism in the region.  Likewise, it explains the various factors that curtails the current defense cooperation of which the researcher identifies as historical disputes, limited defense capabilities and domestic constraints to security cooperation.  As the current defense cooperation appears to lack in scope to  address the  intricate nature of maritime terrorism and piracy, the researcher proposes for not just a TCA focusing only on defense and military cooperation but rather a Tri-National Cooperation Arrangement comprising the whole of government efforts as a mechanism to address the problems in the Sulu-Celebes Seas.

CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION ... 1
1.1. OVERVIEW .... 1
1.2. SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS ... 7
1.3. PURPOSE OF THIS THESIS ... 8
1.4. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ... 10
1.5. RESEARCH METHOD AND SOURCES ... 11
1.6. RESEARCH APPROACH ... 12

CHAPTER 2 – SETTING THE COMPASS ... 15
2.1. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ... 15
2.2.1. THEORIES OF INTERNATIONAL SECURITY COOPERATION... 15
2.2.2. APPROACHES TO MARITIME SECURITY THREATS ... 22
2.2. RESEARCH FRAMEWORK ... 25

CHAPTER 3 – UNDERSTANDING THE FACE OF ADVERSARY ... 27
3.1. CHAPTER OVERVIEW ... 27
3.2. RELIGIOUS AND ETHNIC DISPUTES ... 28
3.2.1. PHILIPPINES ... 29
3.2.2. INDONESIA ... 32
3.2.3. MALAYSIA ... 36
3.3. MARITIME TERRORISM ... 38
3.4. PIRACY ... 42
3.5. THE PERPETRATORS ... 48
3.5.1. SMALL-TIME PIRATES ... 48
3.5.2. SYNDICATED PIRATES ... 49
3.5.3. TERRORIST GROUPS ... 50
3.6. CHAPTER CONCLUSION ... 57

CHAPTER 4 – EXPLAINING TRILATERAL COOPERATION ARRANGEMENT ... 59
4.1 CHAPTER OVERVIEW ... 59
4.2 TRILATERAL MARITIME PATROL ... 61
4.3 TRILATERAL AIR PATROL ... 64
4.4 TRILATERAL MIDDLE-LAND EXERCISE ... 66
4.5 CHAPTER CONCLUSION ... 69

CHAPTER 5 – RATIONALIZING THE CHALLENGES OF DEFENCE COOPERATION ... 71
5.1. CHAPTER OVERVIEW ... 71
5.2. HISTORICAL DISPUTES ... 72
5.2.1. PHILIPPINES SABAH CLAIM ... 72
5.2.2. INDONESIA-MALAYSIA BORDER DISPUTES ... 78
5.3. LIMITED DEFENCE CAPABILITIES ... 81
5.4. DOMESTIC CONSTRAINTS TO SECURITY COOPERATION ... 86
5.5. CHAPTER CONCLUSION ... 91

FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION ... 93
RECOMMENDATION ... 95
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 99

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
TABLE 1 PIRACY, HIJACKING AND KIDNAPPING INCIDENTS FROM
14 FEBRUARY – 15 APRIL 2016 ... 5
TABLE 2 INDONESIA’S EXTENDED INTERCOMMUNAL VIOLENCE... 34
TABLE 3 DEMOLITION OF HINDU TEMPLES IN MALAYSIA FROM
22 FEBRUARY TO 13 JUNE 2007 ... 37
TABLE 4 MARITIME TERRORISM INCIDENTS ... 41
TABLE 5 PIRACY, HIJACKING AND KIDNAPPING INCIDENTS FROM
2013 TO 2016... 46
TABLE 6 PIRACY, HIJACKING AND KIDNAPPING INCIDENTS FROM
2017 TO 2018 ... 47
TABLE 7 MILITARY AND DEFENCE CAPABILITY STATUS ... 86
TABLE 8 ASEAN MARITIME LAW ENFORCEMENT AGENCIES ... 90
FIGURE 1 SECURITY THREATS AND SHIPPING LANES IN THE
MARITIME AREAS OF COMMON CONCERN ... 2
FIGURE 2 THE CORAL TRIANGLE... 3
FIGURE 3 MAKASSAR STRAIT – WATERWAY TOWARDS SULUCELEBES
SEAS ... 4
FIGURE 4 DEWEY MODEL OF INQUIRY ... 13
FIGURE 5 MODEL OF ANALYSIS APPROACH BASED ON DMI ... 14
FIGURE 6 REGIONAL SECURITY COMPLEX THEORY ... 21
FIGURE 7 VICIOUS CYCLE OF MARITIME INSECURITY ... 22
FIGURE 8 RESEARCH FRAMEWORK ... 26
FIGURE 9 TERRITORIES UNDER THE BANGSAMORO AUTONOMOUS
REGION IN MUSLIM MINDANAO ... 31
FIGURE 10 RELIGIOUS VIOLENCE IN 16 PROVINCES OF INDONESIA ... 35
FIGURE 11 LOCATIONS OF 2016 MARITIME CRIMINALITIES ... 45
FIGURE 12 CHRONOLOGY OF TRILATERAL COOPERATION
ARRANGEMENT ... 59
FIGURE 13 PICTURE OF SMALL BOATS USED BY THE ASG ... 63
FIGURE 14 HISTORICAL TERRITORY OF SULTANATE OF SULU ... 75
FIGURE 15 LOCATIONS OF CLASHES BETWEEN THE MALAYSIAN
POLICE FORCES AND THE MEN OF SULTAN JAMALUL
KIRAM III... 77
FIGURE 16 AMBALAT SEA BLOCK... 80
FIGURE 17 MARITIME CLAIMS IN SOUTH CHINA SEA ... 82

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MAPS, FIGURES, TABLES AND PHOTOS
Map 1, Security Threats and Shipping Lanes in the Tri-Border Area, retrieved from
https://worldview.stratfor.com/article/policing-southeast-asias-tri-border-area
Map 2, The Coral Triangle, retrieved from http://ctatlas.reefbase.org/about.aspx
Map 3 , Makassar Strait – Waterway towards Sulu-Celebes Seas, retrieved from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celebes_Sea
Map 4 , Territories under the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao, retrieved from
https://www.benarnews.org/english/news/philippine/leader-speaks-06242019163658.html
Map 5, Locations of 2016 ASG Maritime Attacks, retrieved from
https://www.recaap.org/resources/ck/files/corporate-collaterals/Recaap_Executive%20Director---
s%20Report_pdf.pdf
Map 6, Historical Territory of Sultanate of Sulu, retrieved from
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Map 7, Locations of Clashes between the Malaysian authorities and the men of Sultan Jamalul Kiram III,
retrieved from
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ch_and_Archiving/figures?lo=1
Map 8, Ambalat Sea Block, retrieved from https://ferryapasaribu.wordpress.com/2016/03/07/78/
Map 9, Maritime Claims in South China Sea, retrieved from https://eurasia-newsonline.
com/2019/01/23/is-vietnam-adopting-a-tough-south-china-sea-posture/
Table 1, Piracy, Hijacking and Kidnapping Incidents in Sulu-Celebes Seas from 14 February to 15 April
2016, retrieved from, https://project-iris.app-staging.cloud
Table 2, Indonesia’s Extended Intercommunal Violence, retrieved from https://asiafoundation.org/wpcontent/
uploads/2017/10/Indonesia-StateofConflictandViolence.pdf
Table 3, Demolition of Hindu Temples in Malaysia from 22 February to 13 June 2007, retrieved from
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Table 4, Maritime Terrorism Incidents, retrieved from, https://project-iris.app-staging.cloud
Table 5, Piracy, Hijacking and Kidnapping Incidents in Sulu-Celebes Seas from 2013 to 2016, retrieved
from, https://project-iris.app-staging.cloud
Table 6, Piracy, Hijacking and Kidnapping Incidents in Sulu-Celebes Seas from 2017 to 2018, retrieved
from, https://project-iris.app-staging.cloud
109
Table 7, Military and Defence Capability Status, retrieved from,
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Table 1, ASEAN Maritime Law Enforcement Agencies, The information is from Commodore Stephen
Sanders RN (ed.). Janes Fighting ship 2001 – 2002
Diagram 1, Dewey Model of Inquiry, retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Deweysmodel-
of-inquiry_fig2_265335316
Diagram 2, Model of Analysis Approach based on DMI, formulated by the researcher
Diagram 3, Regional Security Complex Theory, formulated by the researcher based on the RSCT
Diagram 4, Vicious Cycle of Maritime Insecurity, retrieved from https://stableseas.org/publications/sulucelebes-
seas
Diagram 5, Research Framework, formulated by the researcher
Figure 1, Religious Violence in 16 Provinces of Indonesia, retrieved from, https://asiafoundation.org/wpcontent/
uploads/2017/10/Indonesia-StateofConflictandViolence.pdf
Figure 2, Chronology of Trilateral Cooperation Arrangement, formulated by the researcher
Photo 1, Picture of Small Boats used by the ASG, retrieved from
https://apnews.com/article/b0ec994c201c41ecace4822df08be941