恐怖主義是２１世紀一項複雜且艱鉅的任務。在國際社會一致明確地譴責恐怖主義的同時，各種反恐行動卻受到不同方式的干擾。一些關鍵議題尚未解決，且因恐怖主義持續以新的形式出現，使得問題處理方式更加複雜化。
　　　　　　　　　　
國際社會目前所面臨的挑戰便是如何將譴責恐怖主義的聲名與將縝密的宣言付諸具體行動 (法制上、政治上與軍事上)。如此一來，可以有效的揭示恐怖行動對國際關係所帶來的負面影響。

“國際關係與其轉變”是”恐怖主義與國際法”研究的導讀。”恐怖主義與國際法”旨在說明恐怖主義與其結構。主要論點集中在法治框架下之恐怖主義的結構、恐怖主義定義的難題、以及國際法與反恐怖主義。
 
	此研究發現，恐怖主義在定義上仍有不足，而這也影響如何預防恐怖行動。國際人道法禁止暴力行為，更在武器的使用與否上加以區分。我們可以對抗恐怖主義，但如何將之結束？當一個人製造恐怖行動時，對某些人來說他/她是恐怖份子；對另一群人來說卻是英雄。對於某些人來說是一種人權的侵犯；對另一群人而言卻是捍衛自己的人權。

Addressing in the 21st century the terrorism phenomenon is a very complex and challenging task. While condemnation of terrorist acts by the international community has been unanimous and unequivocal, efforts to control this phenomenon have been marred by different approaches. A number of key issues remain unresolved and the solution has been further complicated by the emergence of new forms of terrorism. 

The challenge that the international community faces is transforming the statements and well-elaborated declarations of terrorism condemnation into concrete measures (legal, political, military) that can effectively address the very negative effects and consequences of terrorist acts that influence the international relations. 

“The international relations and the transitional process” is the introduction to the study of “Terrorism and International Law” that is followed by the description of what terrorism is and its structure. The main points to be considered are the Structure of Terrorism, Definition Dilemma, International Law, and the Counter-Terrorism in the Legal Framework.

This study found that there is an empty space when it is related to the meaning of Terrorism and this affects its prevention. International Humanitarian Law prohibits the acts of violence, and it makes the difference when it is an armed conflict or not. Terrorism can be countered, but at the same time how can　it　be ended. A person that commits a terrorist act, for some people he/she is a terrorist, but for others a hero; for some he/she is violating other’s human rights but at the same time he/she is defending his/her owns.

1.	INTRODUCTION	1
1.1.	MOTIVATIONS OF THE RESEARCH	2
1.2.	TIME AND SPACE LOCATION	3
1.3.	RESTRICTIONS	3
1.4.	HYPOTHESIS	3
1.5.	THEORY	3
1.6.	METHODOLOGY	4
1.7.	SOURCES	4
1.8.	STRUCTURE	4
2.	INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND THE TRANSITIONAL PROCESS	7
2.1	DEVELOPMENT	8
2.1.1	World Order	9
2.2	INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM	11
2.2.1	Actors	13
2.3	THEORIES OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS	20
2.3.1	Legal Positivism Theory	23
2.4	MAIN INTERNATIONAL PROBLEMS FOR PEACE AND SECURITY	25
2.4.1	Lack of Peace	28
2.4.2	Insecurity	28
2.4.3	Globalization	30
2.4.4	International Crimes	31
2.4.5	International Terrorism	32
2.5	PARTIAL CONCLUSION	33
3.	HISTORICAL HIGHLIGHTS AND DEFINITION DILEMMA	35
3.1	HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF TERRORISM	36
3.1.1	Classic	37
3.1.2	Origins of the Modern Terrorism	39
3.1.3	Modern Terrorism	40
3.2	A CLOSE APPROXIMATION TO A DEFINITION OF TERRORISM	44
3.2.1	The Nature and Characteristics of Terrorism	45
3.2.2	Components of a definition	46
3.3	DEFINITION OF TERRORISM	49
3.3.1	Governmental Definitions	50
3.3.2	Academic Definitions	52
3.4	TERRORISM AS A POLITICAL DISORDER	63
3.4.1	Aggrieve groups	65
3.4.2	Suppressive and Supportive States	66
3.5	CONCLUSION	69
4.	THE STRUCTURE OF TERRORISM	71
4.1	COMPONENTS OF TERRORISM	71
4.1.1	The Participants in a Terrorist Environment	72
4.1.2	The Causes of Terrorism	73
4.1.3	A Strategy and Tactics	76
4.1.4	Targets and Victims	77
4.1.5	Political, Economic and Religious Goals	79
4.2	THE ACTORS OF TERRORISM AND BEHAVIORAL PATTERNS	80
4.2.1	Different Motives to Act	81
4.2.2	Understanding Terrorist Behavior	82
4.3	TYPES AND SUPPORT OF TERRORISM	84
4.3.1	Types of Terrorism	86
4.3.2	Dissident Terrorism	91
4.3.3	Religious Terrorism	92
4.3.4	International Terrorism	95
4.4	TERRORISM’S IMPLICATIONS IN INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENT	97
4.4.1	Consequences on the Economic	97
4.4.2	Future of Terrorism	99
4.5	CONCLUSION	101
5.	INTERNATIONAL LAW SYSTEM AND TERRORISM	103
5.1	HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF LAW AND DEFINITIONS	103
5.1.1	The Traditional View	106
5.1.2	Modern View	107
5.1.3	The Effects of International Law on Daily Life	109
5.1.4	The Enforcement of International Law	109
5.2	INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW	111
5.2.1	Origins of International Humanitarian Law	112
5.2.2	The 1949 Four Geneva Conventions	113
5.3	INTERNATIONAL ARMED CONFLICTS -CLASSIFIED AS TERRORISTS-	114
5.3.1	Guerrilla Warfare	115
5.3.2	National Liberation Movements	116
5.3.3	Terrorists, Guerrillas and National Liberation Movements	117
5.4	TERRORISM AS AN INTERNATIONAL CRIME	118
5.4.1	A Serious Human Rights Violation	118
5.4.2	A Threat to Democracy	122
5.4.3	A Threat to International Peace and Security	123
5.5	CONCLUSION	124
6.	COUNTER-TERRORISM IN INTERNATIONAL LAW	127
6.1	THE WORD “TERRORISM” IN INTERNATIONAL LAW	127
6.2	MAIN INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIES AGAINST TERRORISM	129
6.2.1	International Treaties on Terrorism	130
A.	THE BAN ON TERRORISM BY INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW	142
6.2.2	Measures of the 1949 four Geneva conventions	142
6.2.3	Rules Applicable to International Armed Conflict	144
6.2.4	Rules Applicable to Non-International Armed Conflict	150
6.3	THE UNITED NATIONS AND TERRORISM	153
6.3.1	Security Council Resolution	153
6.3.2	United Nations Counter-Terrorism Strategy	154
6.4	CONCLUSION	155
7.	CONCLUSIONS	157
BIBLIOGRAPHY	165
APPENDIX	175
ABBREVIATIONS	175
U.S.-DESIGNATED FOREIGN TERRORIST ORGANIZATIONS	176
INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND PROTOCOLS STATUS	181

Books

Abelson, Donald E. Do Think Tanks Matter? Assessing the Impact of Public Policy Institutes. Canada: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2002.

Arquilla, John  and Rondfeldt, David, Networks and Netwar: The Future of Terror, Crime and Militancy. Santa Monica, CA: Rand, 2001.

Austin, John, The Province of Jurisprudence. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995. 

Barkan, Steven E. and Snowden Lynne L. Collective Violence. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2001.

Baylis, John and Smith, Steve, The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations, 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.

Buzan, Barry, and Little, Richard, International Systems in World Theory: Remaking the Study of International Relations. Oxford University Press, New York, 2000.

Central Intelligence Agency, Guide to the analysis of Insurgency, Washington: US Government Printing Office, no date. 

Clapham, Andrew, Human Rights in the Private Sphere. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996.

Clinton Olson, William, The Theory and Practice of International Relations. 9th ed. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1994. 

Coady , C.A.J. (Tony), Defining Terrorism. ed. Igor Primoratz, Terrorism: The Philosophical Issues, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.

Combs, Cindy C. Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century. 2nd ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, 2000.

Coplin, William D. Introduction to International Politics. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1980.

Coser, Lewis, The Functions of Social Conflict. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. 1956.

Couloumbis, Theodore A. and Wolfe, James H.  Introduction to International Relations Power and Justice. 2nd ed. New Jersey: Prenticce-Hall Inc., 1982.

Crenshaw, Martha, Terrorism and International Cooperation. New York: Institute for East West Security Studies, 1989.
David J. Whittaker, The Terrorism Reader, London: Routledge, 2001.

Dewitt, David, Building a New Global Order: Emerging Trends in International Security. Oxford University Press, New York, 1993. 

Dobson, Christopher, and Payne, Christopher, The Weapons of Terror. London: MacMillan Press, 1979.  

Dorn, A. Walter, World Order for a New Millenium: Political, Cultural and Spiritual Approaches to Building Peace. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999.

Falk, Richard, A. A Study of Future Worlds, New York: Tso he Free Press, 1975.

Fleck, Dieter, The Handbook of Humanitarian Law in Armed Conflicts. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.

Frey, Bruno S. Dealing with Terrorism –Stick or Carrot?. Massachusetts, United States of America:  Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 2004.

Galtung, Johan, “11 September 2001: Diagnosis, Prognosis, Therapy”. 2002 In: Searching for peace - the road to TRANSCEND, Galtung, Johan, Jacobsen, Carl G. and Brand-Jacobsen, Kai Frithjof. London: Pluto Press.

George, Robert P. The Autonomy of Law. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996. 

Goldstein, Joshua S., International Relations, 3rd ed. Washington, D.C: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 1999. 

Goodwin-Gill, G., Talmon, S. The Reality of International Law: Essays in Honour of Ian Brownlie. Oxford: Clarendon, 1999.

Guelke, Adrian, The age of terrorism and the international political system. London, UK: I.B. Tauris, 1995.

Gus, Martin, Understanding Terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives, and Issues. California: Sage Publications, 2006.

Hall, William Edward, A Treatise on International Law. 3rd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1890.

Hamilton, Daniel S., Terrorism and International Relations. Lisbon, Portugal: Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, 2006. 

Hillier, Timothy, Principles of Public International Law, 2nd ed. London, UK: Cavendish Publishing Limited, 1999.

Hoffer, Eric, The True Believer: Thoughts on the Nature of Mass Movements.New York: HarperCollins, 1989.

Hoffman, Bruce, Inside Terrorism, New York: Columbia University Press, 1998.

Hoffman, Bruce, Terrorism Today. New York:  Columbia University Press, 1998.

Holsti, K.J. International Politics: A Framework for Analysis, 6th ed. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall International Editions, 1992. 

Honderich, Ted, Three Essays on Political Violence, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1976.

Iadicolam, Peter and Shupe, Anson, Violence, Inequality, and Human Freedom, Dix Hills, NY: General Hall, 1998.

Jenks, Wilfried C. The Common Law of Mankind, London: Stevens, 1958.

Jervis, Robert, Perception and Misperception in International Politics. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1997.

Jordan, Robert S. International Organizations: A Comparative Approach to the Management of Cooperation. 4th ed. Westport Connecticut: Praeger, 2001. 

Katona, Peter, Intriligator, Michael D., and Sullivan, John P., Countering Terrorism and WMD: Cretating a global counter-terrorism network. New York: Routledge, 2006.

Kegley Jr., Charles W., Withhkopf, Eugene R. World Politics: Trends & Transformation. 9th ed.  Belmont, California: Thomson Wadsworth, 2004. 

Kellen, Konrad, On Terrorists and Terrorism. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 1982.

Kissinger, Henry, Diplomacy. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994. 

Laqueur, Walter, The Age of Terrorism. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1987.

Laqueur, Walter, The New Terrorism: Fanaticism and the Arms of Mass Destruction. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. 

Le Roy, Bennett, A. and Oliver, James K. International Organizations:  Principles and Issues. 7th ed. Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2002.

Lechner, Frank J. and Boli, John, The Globalization Reader. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2000. 

Lentner, Howard H. International Politics: Theory and Practice. New York: West Publishing Company, 1997.

Lester A., Sobel, Political Terrorism, vol. 2, New York: Facts on file, 1978.

Levitt, Geoffrey, Is “Terrorism” Worth Defining?. Ohio: Northern University Press, 1986.

Nicholson, Michael, International Relations: A Concise Introduction. New York University Press, New York, 1998.

North, Robert C. War, Peace, Survival: Global Politics and Conceptual Synthesis. San Francisco: Westview Press, 1990.

Nye Jr., Joseph S. The Paradox of American Power. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.

Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, US Department of State Publication 10433, Patterns of global Terrorism 1996, State Department, Washington, DC., April 1997.

P.A. Reynolds, An Introduction to International Relations, 3rd Edition, Longman, New York, 1997.

Pamala L., Griset, and Mahan, Sue, Terrorism in Perspective. California: Thousands Oaks, 2003.

Papp, Daniel S. Contemporary International Relations: Frameworks for Understanding. (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 2nd Edition, 1988.

Pollard, Neal A. Globalization’s Bastards: Illegitimate Non-State Actors in International Law, in Robert J. Bunker ed. Networks, Terrorism and Global Insurgency, New York: Routledge, 2006.

Primoratz, Igor, Terrorism: Philosophical Issues. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.

R. G. Frey and Morris, Christopher W. Violence, Terrorism and Justice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Rosen, Steven J. and Jones, Walter S. The Logic of International Relations. 3rd ed. Massachusetts: Winthrop Publishers, Inc., 1980.

Rubin, Alfred P. Proceedings of the International Law Association Committee on Terrorism. Raporteurs              Summary, Irvington-on-Hudson, New York: Transnational Publishers, 1998.

Saul, Ben, Defining Terrorism in International Law. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.

Schmid Alex P. and Jongman, Albert J. Political Terrorism. Amsterdam: North Holland Publishing Co. 1983.

Schmid, Alex P. and Jongman, Albert J. et al., Political Terrorism: A New Guide to Actors, Authors, Concepts, Data Bases, Theories, and Literature, 3rd. ed. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Books, 2005.

Shaw, Malcolm N. International Law, 5th ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

Simonsen, Clifford E. and Spindlove, Jeremy R. Terrorism Today: The Past, The Players, The Future. 3rd. Ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. 

Sloan, Stephen, Terrorism: The Present Threat in Context. New York: Berg, 2006. 

Sobel, Lester A. Political Terrorism, vol. 2. New York: Fact on file, 1978.

Steiner, Henry, “International Protection of Human Rights” in M Evans ed., International Law, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Stern, Jessica, The Ultimate Terrorists. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1999.

Taylor, Robert, The History of Terrorism. San Diego, California: Lucent Books, 2002.

Terrif, Terry, Croft, Stuart, James, Lucy, and Morgan, Patrick M. Security Studies Today. United Kingdom: Polity Press, 1999. 

Terrorist Research and Analytical Center, National Security Division, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Terrorism in the United States 1995,  US Department of Justice, Washington, DC, 1996.

The Oxford English Dictionary, Compact Edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1971.

U.S. Department of State, Office of Counterterrorism, Center for Defense Information, Terrorism Project.

UNDP, Human Development Report 1994. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.

United States Departments of the Army and the Air Force, Field Manual 100-20 Air force Pamphlet 3-20, Military Operations in Low Intensity Conflicts, Headquarters, Departments of the Army and the Air Force, Washington, DC, 1990.

Viotti, Paul R. and Kauppi, Mark, V. International Relations Theory: Realism, Pluralism, Globalism. 2nd. Ed. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1993.

Waugh, William L. International terrorism: how nations respond to terrorists. Salisbury, North Carolina: Documentary Publications, 1982. 

Weimann, Gabriel and Conrad, Winn, The Theater of Terror: Mass Media. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992.

Westlake, John, Chapters on the Principles of International Law. Cambridge: University Press, 1894.
Wilkinson, Paul, Political Terrorism, London: Macmillan Press Ltd, 1974.
Wilkinson, Paul, Terrorism and Liberal State, London: MacMillan Press Ltd., 1977.
Ziegler, David W. War, Peace, and International Politics. 2nd. Ed. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1981.

Journals

Crenshaw, Martha, “The Causes of Terrorism” Comparative Politics, Vol. 13, No. 4. (Jul., 1981): 379-399. 

Fearon, James D. and Laitin, David D., “Explaining interethnic cooperation”. The American Political Science Review, (1996).

Malik, Omar, “Enough of the Definition of Terrorism!” Royal Institute of International Affairs paper. London:  RIIA, (2001).

Morris, Madeline, “Prosecuting Terrorism: The Quandaries of Criminal Jurisdiction in International Relations in W. Herre (ed), Terrorism and the Military, (2003).

Prabha, Kshitij, “Defining Terrorism”, Strategic Analysis Journal of the IDSA, Vol. XXIV, April No. 1 (2000).

Rapoport, David C. “The Fourth Wave:  September 11 in the History of Terrorism,” Journal of Current History, 100 (December 2001): 419-424. 

Schmid, Alex P., “Frameworks for Conceptualizing Terrorism”, Terrorism and Political Violence, vol. 16, no. 2, (2004): 197-221. 

Wellman, Carl, “On terrorism Itself”, Journal of Value Inquiry 13, (1979).

Williams, Robin M. Jr. “The Sociology of Ethnic Conflicts: Comparative International Perspectives”. Annual Review of Sociology, (1994). 

Electronic Sources

Criminal and Justice College. The Criminology of Terrorism: History, Law, Definitions, Typologies, North Carolina Wesleyan College [electronic journal]. North Carolina: Wesleyan College of Criminal and Justice 2006-[cited on October 26 2006]. Available from http://faculty.ncwc.edu/TOConnor/429/429lect01.htm  

Foreign Terrorist Organizations (FTOs), [database online].U.S. Department of State, Office of Counterterrorism, Center for Defense Information, Terrorism Project, April 2006 –[cited on 10 March 2007].Available from  http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/fs/37191.htm 
Green, Leslie, Legal Positivism, Center for the Study of Language and Information. [database online] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford: Stanford University, January 2003.-[cited on March 16 2007]. Available from http://plato.stanford.edu/cite.html    

Hayes, Brian, “Computing Science - The statistics of deadly quarrels” in American Scientist: The Magazine of Sigma XI, The Scientific Research Society [database online]. Triangle Park, North Carolina: American Scientist- [cited on 28 February 2007]. Available from http://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/14426?&print=yes  

ICCPR, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, entry into force 23 March 1976 International Humanitarian Law, “Answers to your questions”, International Committee of the Red Cross October 2002. [cited on April 19 2007].  Available from: http://www.ehl.icrc.org/images/stories/resources/ihl_answers_to_your_questions.pdf  

Khan, Ali. A Legal Theory of International Terrorism, 945-972, Connecticut Law Review [electronic journal]. Connecticut: Published in 19 Connecticut Law Review 1987-[cited on November 12 2006]. Available from http://classes.washburnlaw.edu/khan/publications/19CLR945.htm    

Laos, Nicolas K. “Fighting Terrorism: What Can International Law Do?” in the Royal Institute of International Affairs [database online]. London: Chatham House, 2000 [cited on 24 April 2007]. Available from http://www.sam.gov.tr/perceptions/Volume5/March-May2000/VolumeVNicolasLaos.pdf 

Marmor, Andrei, Legal Positivism: Still Descriptive and Morally Neutral, (School of Philosophy. [database online]. California, USC University of Southern California, Winter 2004.- [cited on March 16 2007]. Available from: http://lawweb.usc.edu/users/amarmor/documents/DescriptivePositivismfinalms.pdf

Midgley, Mary, “Understanding the war on terrorism,” in Open Democracy: Free Thinking for the World [database online]. London, UK: Open Democracy, October 25, 2002- [cited 28 February 2007]. Available from http://www.opendemocracy.net/content/articles/PDF/72.pdf  

Murphy, Jo Anne, “End Terrorism List Archive: Focusing on Shadow Theory/Causes of Terrorism”, in Global Learning Group, [database online]. Holyoke, Ma: Education Development Center Inc, 2001- [cited 28 February 2007]. Available from http://www.edc.org/GLG/end-terrorism/archive/0028.html. 

Radu, Michael, “The Futile Search for ‘Root Causes’ of Terrorism” in American Diplomacy [database online]. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: American Diplomacy Publishers, August 16, 2002- [cited on 28 February 2007]. Available from http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2002_07-09/radu_futile/radu_futile.html  

Reinares, Fernando “Conceptualizing International Terrorism,” in Area: Internacional Terrorism [database online] Real Instituto Elcano de Estudios Internacionales y Estratégicos-[cited on 23 April 2007]. Available from http://www.realinstitutoelcano.org/analisis/802/Reinares802.pdf 
Report of the Future of Terrorism: Task Force, [database online]. U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Homeland Security Advisory Council, January 2007 –[cited on 10 March 2007]. Available from http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/hsac-future-terrorism-010107.pdf 

U.S. Department of State, Office of the Coordinator of Counterterrorism, Country Reports on Terrorism 2006. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of State, April 2006. Available from http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2005/64337.htm

United Nations Mission of Support in East Timor [database online]. Peace and Security Section of the Department of Public Information in cooperation with the Department of Peacekeeping Operations, United Nations-[cited on 23 April 2007]. Available from http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/missions/unmiset/index.html. 


Online Newspapers

Burns, Chris and Bittermann, Jim, “Fiery riots spread beyond Paris”, Friday, November 4, 2005, Posted 2; 54 p.m. EST (19; 54 GMT) http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/europe/11/04/france.riots/index.html  


Conventions, Protocols and Resolutions

Charter of the United Nations, available from United Nations Web Page: http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/index.html 

Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Civil Aviation ("Montreal Convention", 1971--applies to acts of aviation sabotage such as bombings aboard aircraft in flight)

Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, (1988--applies to terrorist activities on ships)

Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft ("Hague Convention", 1970--aircraft hijackings)

Convention I, For the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, Geneva, 12 August 1949.

Convention II, For the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea, Geneva, 12 August 1949.

Convention III, Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, Geneva, 12 August 1949.

Convention IV, Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, 12 August 1949.

Convention on Offences and Certain Other Acts Committed On Board Aircraft ("Tokyo Convention", 1963--safety of aviation)

Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose of Detection (1991--provides for chemical marking to facilitate detection of plastic explosives, e.g., to combat aircraft sabotage)

Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material ("Nuclear Materials Convention", 1980--combats unlawful taking and use of nuclear material)

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes Against Internationally Protected Persons (1973- outlaws attacks on senior government officials and diplomats)

International Convention Against the Taking of Hostages ("Hostages Convention", 1979)

International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism 2005.

International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombing (1997): (UN General Assembly Resolution)

International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999)

Organization of the Islamic Conference on Combating International Terrorism –OIC-, Preamble. 

Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Fixed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf (1988--applies to terrorist activities on fixed offshore platforms)

Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence at Airports Serving International Civil Aviation, supplementary to the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation (Extends and supplements the Montreal Convention on Air Safety), (1988)

Protocol I, Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts, 8 June 1977.

Protocol II, Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts, 8 June 1977.

Resolution 1566 (2004), Adopted by the Security Council at its 5043rd meeting on 8 October 2004.

Security Council resolution 1516, Threats to international peace and security caused by terrorist acts. 2003.

UNGAOR 49th session, 84th mtg, Measures to eliminate international terrorism: Report of the
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1526, Threats to international peace and security caused by terrorist acts. 2004.


Web pages

United Nations Documents: http://www.un.org/documents/resga.htm

United Nation Action to Counter Terrorism: http://www.un.org/terrorism/index.shtml 

United States Government: http://www.state.gov 

International Committee of the Red Cross: http://www.icrc.org