本論文探討以母語為中文的學生在接受英語口譯題目時(聽力及閱讀)大腦的激活反應：以功能性磁共振成像(functional magnetic resonance imaging, fMRI)來探索第二語言解碼聽覺及視覺訊號時之腦部激活情形，以及破解二種訊號時共區之腦網絡。實驗素材取自翻譯專業資格（水平）考試(China Accreditation Test for Translators and Interpreters, CATTI )，經校正長短及難度的一致性後在fMRI中螢幕上或耳機中播出。實驗總長度為2078秒，其中聽力實驗1014秒，閱讀實驗1064秒。實驗對象皆為中文母語人士，並慣用右手。

    腦區資料經SPM8統計之反應結果如下(p >.001)：
一、聽力：左腦：額上回、額中回、顳上回、枕上回、枕中回、和小腦；
    右腦：額上回、額中回、顳上回、頂上回、小腦和尾狀核
二、閱讀：左腦：額中回、枕上回、枕中回、和海馬體；右腦: 枕中回
三、共區：左腦：額中回、枕上回、和枕中回 

    研究發現如下:
一、聽力題所激活之腦反應在程度及範圍上都較閱讀題大，腦激活程度可能與困難度相關，
	推測對實驗者而言，聽力較閱讀題困難。
二、聽力題在左右腦皆引起相似程度的反應，相較下，閱讀題則偏重左腦。
三、本次結果顯示，本次實驗對象使用全腦破解聽力題，與之前偏重左腦　　　
	的經典Ｗernicke-Geschwind Model模型相異。非傳統語言區與右腦的激活可能與語	言流利度有關(Leonard, et al., 2011)。
四、僅閱讀而言，之前以西方人士為實驗對象的結果（Models of 
	Ｗernicke-Geschwind, Friederici and Kotz, and Leonard, Torres et al.) 顯示其偏重顳葉，本實驗中的對象則在閱讀時則偏重枕葉。
五、破解聽力題及閱讀題時，激活度左腦皆高於右腦。共區網絡中枕葉及前額葉的激活, 顯	示受試者理解語言時仰賴視覺及控制。
六、實驗結果顥示，受試者破解聽力、閱讀及其共區之腦網絡和之前Ｗernicke-Geschwind模型的解碼腦區相異。

  本實驗－以華人為實驗對象所探得之語言解碼模型－與之前非華人為實驗對象之研究所導出之模型皆有明顯不同。於是，在為中文母語學員進行語言培訓時，應考慮其大腦之語言解碼模型，因此而調整教學及訓練方式，提升課程效率及教學教果。此外，本次實驗結果顯示，中文母語人士在做聽力題及閱讀題時，皆相當仰賴視覺區。因此，視覺輔助應在二語教學中更多地加以應用，以降低學習難度及提升學習成果，口譯尤屬高難度進階型的學科，更加需要視覺輔助及邏輯理解。

This dissertation investigated the involvement of supra-modal network when Chinese subjects processed English interpretation exams (listening and reading). The materials in the present research were derived from CATTI, programmed by E-prime, then transmitted through the headphone set (listening) or displayed on the screen (reading) in an fMRI machine. Each module contained two runs with a total period of 2078 seconds for listening (1014 secs) and reading (1064 secs). 

The collected data were analyzed by using SPM8, and the results were reported as the following: 
1.	ROIs of the listening tasks included SFG, MFG, STG, SOG, MOG, and the cerebellum in the left hemisphere (LH); SFG, MFG, STG, SPG, cerebellum and caudate in the right hemisphere (RH). 
2.	ROIs of reading tasks were found in MFG, SOG, MOG, and hippocampus in LH; MOG in RH.
3.	The supra-modal network involved MFG, SOG, and MOG in the left hemisphere. (p >.001)
 
This paper has achieved several insightful findings as listed below: 
1.	Listening tasks evoked greater and broader activation as compared to reading tasks, which might infer that even with the same level of difficulty, auditory materials were more challenging to process than visual materials for bilingual participants.          
2.	ROIs of listening tasks displayed a bilateral distribution, while the activation associated with the reading tasks remained to be left lateralized. 
3.	The bilateral activation associated with the listening task was different from the classical Wernicke-Geschwind Model. Also, the activation of non-classical areas of the right hemisphere may be associated with the difficulty of the method, auditory transmission.
4.	For these Chinese subjects, reading activation tended to be occipital-lobe focused, while in previous models (Models of Wernicke-Geschwind, Friederici and Kotz, and Leonard, Torres et al.), subjects (native/ nearly native with recruited languages) heavily relied on the temporal lobe. 
5.	The supra-modal network suggested that the recruited subjects capitalized on the occipital lobe and frontal lobe to achieve semantic processing regardless of the input modules. 
6.	The supra-modal network appeared different from the cognitive parts in the Wenickes-Geschwind Model, which might suggest that the subjects adopted a different network than subjects in previous study. 

Among a wealth of models of language processing, most of them were conducted with subjects acquiring the second language up to native or close to native level. This leads to the doubt of its generalizability to subjects learning a new language as a L2 or an FL. The present research verified that the recruited late bilingual subjects adopted a different network to process languages, opposed to models in the existing literature. Meanwhile, novel findings in the present experiment revealed that listening was comparatively more difficult for these subjects than reading. Moreover, the occipital lobe remained crucial for the recruited Chinese bilinguals to process materials with high levels of difficulty. Visualization is thus highly emphasized during future language instructions, especially for advanced materials, and for subjects of similar language backgrounds in the present research.

Table of Contents

CHINESE ABSTRACT
ENGLISH ABSTRACT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF APPENDICES
ABBREVIATIONS
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background and Motivation	1
1.2 The Statement of the Problem	4
1.3 The Purpose of the Study	12
1.4 Research Questions	14
1.5 Significance of the Study	15
1.6 Definition of Terms	17

CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
2.1 Translation Training	22
2.2 Translation Model 	24
2.3 Models of Language Processing	25
2.4 Sentence Processing	27
2.5 Syntactic Processing	28
2.6 Semantic Processing	29
2.7 LH/RH	31
2.8 Auditory Occipital Activations (AOAS)	32
2.9 Bilingualism& Brain Network 	34
2.10 LH/ RH & Chinese/English	36
2.11 LH/ RH & L1/ L2 & Fluency	37
2.12 ROIS of the Present Study	41

CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY
3.1 Subjects	46
3.2 Instrument	48
3.3 Pilot Study 	49
3.4 Materials	51
3.5 Design	56
3.6 FMRI Imaging Acquisition	59
3.7 FMRI Imaging Analysis	60

CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS & DISCUSSION
4.1 Session I: The Listening Task	62
4.1.1 ROIS 	62
4.1.2 LH/ RH	68
4.1.3 Comparison with previous models   	69
4.2 Session II: The Reading Task	72
4.2.1 ROIS	72
4.2.2 LH/ RH	76
4.2.3 Comparison with previous models	77
4.3 Session III: The Supra-Model Network	80
4.3.1 ROIS	83
4.3.2 LH/ RH	83
4.3.3 Comparison with previous models	83
4.4 Findings & Discussion	85
4.4.1 LH/ RH & Bilinguals	85
4.4.2 AOA	87
4.4.3 Novel Finding of the supra-model network	89

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS
5.1 Contribution to Brain-Based Foreign Language Studies	92
5.2 The Importance of FMRI Applications to Neurocognitive EFL Research	94
5.3 Pedagogical Implications：Rethinking EFL Teaching from Scientific Evidence	97	
5.4 Limitations of the Study and Suggestions for Future Research	99
 
List of Appendices
Appendix A. Consent Form	118
Appendix B. Questionnaire of Being Right-Handed or Left-Handed	119
Appendix C. Subjects’ Background Questionnaire	120
Appendix D. Pretest [Listening]	121
Appendix E. Pretest [Reading]	125
Appendix F. Formal Test [Listening]	129
Appendix G. Formal Test [Reading]	133
 
Abbreviations

BA: Brodmann’s Area
HG: Heschl’s Gyrus
IFG: Inferior Frontal Gyrus
ITG: Inferior Temporal Gyrus
MFG: Middle Frontal Gyrus
MTG: Middle Temporal Gyrus
PFC: Prefrontal Cortex
SFG: Superior Frontal Gyrus
STG: Superior Temporal Gyrus
STS: Superior Temporal Sulcus
L1: the Native Language
L2: a Second Language
FL: a Foreign Language
LH: Left Hemisphere
RH: Right Hemisphere
AOA: Auditory Occipital Activations    
LOT: Lateral Occipital Temporal Areas
VOT: Ventral Occipital-Temporal Area
ROI: Region of Interest
LIFC: Left Inferior Frontal Cortex
MOG: Middle Occipital Gyrus
 
List of Figures and Tables
Figure 1.1 Complex relationships of visual, orthographic, phonological and semantic system in Chinese.  	6
Figure 1.2 Wernicke-Geschwind Model –repeat a spoken word	8
Figure 1.3 Wernicke-Geschwind Model – repeat a written word	8
Figure 1.4 Cognitive process of a spoken word and a written word	8
Figure 1.5 Supra-modal Language Comprehension Network. (Braze et al., 2011)	9
Figure 1.6 Conjunction Analysis of Visual and Auditory Language Comprehension (Lindenberg & Scheef, 2007)	11
Figure 1.7 Blocked Design	19
Figure 1.8 Event-related Design	19
Figure 2.1 Nida’s Translation Model (Nida and Taber, 1969)	24
Figure 2.2 Phases of Language Processing in Friederici & Kotz (2003, p. s10)	26
Figure 3.1 Group dSPM images of the mean activity evoked by visual words from 350-400ms	38
Figure 3.2 Group dSPM images of the mean activity evoked by auditory words from 300-450ms	39
Figure 4 Supra-modal ROIs of Listening and Reading	45
Figure 5.1 Experiment Steps for Listening Task	57
Figure 5.2 Experiment Steps d for Reading Task	58
Figure 5.3 fMRI Laboratory in East China Normal University, Shanghai	59
Figure 6.1 Results of Listening	66
Figure 6.2 Results of Reading	74
Figure 6.3 Results of the Supramodal Network	81
Table 2.1 Studies regarding ROIs of Listening	42
Table 2.2 Studies regarding ROIs of Reading	43
Table 2.3 Studies regarding Supra-modal ROIs of Listening and Reading	45
Table 3.1 Readability of Contents - Formal Test	52
Table 3.2 Readability of Contents - Pre-Test	53
Table 3.3 Readability of Questions - Formal Test	54
Table 3.4 Readability of Questions - Pre-Test	55
Table 4.1 Results of Listening	67
Table 4.2 Results of Reading	75
Table 4.3 Results of the Supramodal Network	82

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