電容去離子(Capacitive Deionization, CDI)技術為一項低耗能、低成本及無二次汙染之脫鹽技術。本研究利用NiHCF、CuHCF及NTP@C之嵌入式材料作為CDI之負電極，用於嵌入Na+，並利用活性碳電極作為正極吸附Cl-。將兩極材料組成非對稱電容去離子(Asymmetric CDI)系統移除鹽水中之NaCl，藉以評估NiHCF、CuHCF及NTP@C電極對Na+之去除效率及穩定性。
    由NiHCF、CuHCF及NTP@C電極與活性碳組成之非對稱系統對Na+可分別達5.8、4.0及4.5 mg Na+/g electrode之電吸附量，均高於對稱活性碳(AC/AC)系統之3.6 mg Na+/g electrode，顯示加入嵌入式電極材料可明顯提升整體CDI系統之Na+去除能力。
    另外研究嵌入式材料對Na+、K+的離子選擇性，並探討Na+、K+之間的競爭嵌入效應。在NiHCF/AC系統中，由於K+遷移率高故優先被嵌入至晶格中，但K+的遷出能力較差，這歸因於K+之Shannon半徑較Na+大而不易遷出，導致在CDI操作期間的再生性較差。NiHCF/AC系統經過三次循環後，在Na+及K+溶液中之去除率分別衰減5.1%及35.4%。
    與對稱AC/AC系統相比，非對稱NiHCF/AC、CuHCF/AC和NTP@/AC系統具有更高的總離子去除效率和再生能力，而NTP @C/AC之電吸附容量雖然小於NiHCF/AC及CuHCF/AC，但其電吸附速率則較上述兩者快。

Capacitive deionization (CDI) technology is an energy-efficient and low-cost desalination technology which generated low secondary pollutions. In this study, asymmetric CDI systems using intercalation materials, including nickel hexacyanoferrate (NiHCF), copper hexacyanoferrate (CuHCF), or carbon-coated sodium titanium phosphate (NTP@C) , as the cathode and activated carbon (AC) as the anode for the removal of Na+ and Cl- in aqueous solutions are assembled and their removal efficiency and stability are evaluated. The NiHCF/AC, CuHCF/AC, and NTP@C/AC systems exhibited average Na+ electrosorption capacities of 5.8, 4.0 and 4.5 mg Na+/g electrode material, respectively, which are all higher than that of the symmetric AC/AC system (3.6 mg Na+/g AC). These results indicated that the utilization of intercalation material electrodes could significantly improve the Na+ removal efficiency of the CDI system.
    The selectivity of these materials toward K+ and Na+ are also explored, and the intercalation competing effects between these cations are investigated. The lower deintercalation ability of K+ than Na+ is observed for NiHCF/AC. It is deduced that K+ has a larger Shannon radius than Na+, and therefore resulted in poor regeneration ability during the CDI operations. The Na+ and K+ removal efficiency of the NiHCF/AC system is decreased 5.1% and 35.4%, respectively, during three cycles. 
    The asymmetric NiHCF/AC, CuHCF/AC and NTP@/AC CDI systems have superior overall ion removal efficiency and regeneration ability than the symmetric AC/AC CDI system.  The electrosorption capacity of NTP@/AC is smaller than the NiHCF/AC and the CuHCF/AC systems, but its electrosorption rate is faster than the above two.

目錄
第一章	緒論	1
1.1	前言	1
1.2	研究緣起	1
1.3	研究目的	2
第二章	文獻回顧	3
2.1	海水淡化技術	3
2.1.1	蒸發法	4
2.1.2	薄膜法	6
2.1.3	電容去離子技術 (Capacitive Deionization, CDI)	9
2.2	電容去離子(CDI)技術	10
2.2.1	原理	10
2.2.2	電極材料之選擇	12
2.3	非對稱之電容去離子技術	15
2.4	嵌入式主體化合物	20
2.4.1	普魯士藍	23
2.4.2	鐵氰化鎳(NiHCF)	26
2.4.3	鐵氰化銅(CuHCF)	30
2.4.4	磷酸鈉鈦(NTP@C)	33
第三章	研究材料及方法	37
3.1	實驗架構	37
3.2	實驗藥品與設備	39
3.2.1	實驗藥品	39
3.2.2	實驗儀器設備	41
3.3	電極材料之製作	42
3.3.1	NiHCF材料合成	42
3.3.2	CuHCF材料合成	44
3.3.3	NTP@C材料合成	46
3.4	電極之製備	48
3.4.1	NiHCF電極	48
3.4.2	CuHCF電極	48
3.4.3	NTP@C電極	50
3.4.4	活性碳電極	52
3.5	實驗分析方法	54
3.5.1	X射線繞射分析(XRD)	54
3.5.2	掃描式電子顯微鏡分析(SEM)	54
3.5.3	穿透式電子顯微鏡分析(TEM)	55
3.5.4	循環伏安法(CV)	56
3.5.5	電化學阻抗譜分析(EIS)	58
3.5.6	感應耦合電漿發射光譜儀(ICP-OES)	59
3.6	電容去離子技術(CDI)	59
第四章	結果與討論	61
4.1	NiHCF應用於電容去離子技術	61
4.1.1	NiHCF之表面特性分析	61
4.1.2	NiHCF之電化學特性	64
4.1.3	NiHCF應用於電容去離子技術	69
 4.1.3.1 對稱AC/AC與非對稱NiHCF/AC系統比較	69
 4.1.3.2 非對稱NiHCF/AC系統最佳操作電位與電壓分配情形	73
 4.1.3.3 非對稱NiHCF/AC系統Na+與Cl-離子濃度計算	78
 4.1.3.4 非對稱NiHCF/AC系統對Na+或K+之離子選擇性	80
4.2	CuHCF應用於電容去離子技術	90
4.2.1	CuHCF之表面特性分析	90
4.2.2	CuHCF之電化學特性	93
4.2.3	CuHCF應用於電容去離子技術	96
4.3	NTP@C應用於電容去離子技術	102
4.3.1	NTP@C之表面特性分析	102
4.3.2	NTP@C之電化學特性	106
4.3.3	NTP@C應用於電容去離子技術	109
4.4	NiHCF、CuHCF、NTP@C之綜述	113
4.4.1	電化學性能之比較	113
4.4.2	Na離子去除性能之比較	115
第五章	結論與建議	118
Reference	121

 
List of Figure
Figure 2.1.1.1 Schematic diagram of (a) MED (b) MSF (c) VC units	5
Figure 2.1.2.1 Diagram of (a) RO principle. (b) RO system (MILLER, 2003).	7
Figure 2.1.2.2 Schematic diagram of electrodialysis (ED) desalination process (MILLER, 2003).	8
Figure 2.2.1.1 Operation of a Capacitive Deionization for water desalination	11
Figure 2.2.2.1 (a) Pore nomenclature according to IUPAC, (b)nomenclature in porous media transport theory (S.Porada et al., 2013).	14
Figure 2.3.1 Deionization curves of asymmetric cells of ZnO/AC composite and AC in comparison with symmetric cell of AC using NaCl aqueous electrolyte with 500 mg/L (Huang et al., 2017).	17
Figure 2.3.2 The capacitance of the CNTs, ammoniated CNTs and sulfonated CNTs electrodes as a function of the cycle number at the scanning rate of 5 mV/s and the inset is the capacitance retention of the three electrodes after 100 cycles (Ma et al., 2019).	18
Figure 2.3.3 The cyclic adsorption/desorption curves of the four cells in ten cycles (Ma et al., 2019).	19
Figure 2.4.1 (a) Schematic illustration of an intercalation material being used as an electrode in a CDI cell. Salt concentration in the flow channel adjacent to the electrode undergoing intercalation decreases with time, indicated by the grey-scale gradient. Black lines in the electrode area represent the conductive carbon which provides an electronic link between the intercalation particles (white circles) and the current collector. (b) Schematic representation of intercalation of cations and inclusion of electrons in the electrode. (c) Illustration of redox-active cation intercalation. (d) Intercalation through electrostatic interaction between intercalant and host material as seen in MXene electrodes (Singh et al., 2019).	21
Figure 2.4.2 A brief chronology describing the development of intercalation materials based on selected papers (Singh et al., 2019).	22
Figure 2.4.1.1 The crystal structures of (a) Fe43+[Fe2+(CN)6]3·xH2O (insoluble Prussian blue) and (b) KFe3+[Fe2+(CN)6] (soluble Prussian blue) (S.-H.Lee et al., 2012).	25
Figure 2.4.2.1 The crystal structure schematic of NiHCF. Hydrated alkaline cations such as K+ and Na+ occupy the interstitial “A” sites at the center of each of the eight subcells of the unit cell (D. Wessells et al., 2011).	26
Figure 2.4.2.2 (a) Cyclic voltammetry of NiHCF with Li+, Na+ , K+ and NH4+ ions. (b) NiHCF shows no capacity loss after 5000 cycles of Na+ insertion at a 8.3C rate. However, during K+ cycling, NiHCF is stable for only about 1000 cycles, after which its capacity decays at an approximate rate of 1.75%/1000 cycles (D. Wessells et al., 2011).	29
Figure 2.4.3.1 Framework of CuHCF (Jia et al., 2014).	30
Figure 2.4.3.2 (a) Cyclic voltammetry (b) The cycle life of CuHCF during cycling of Li+, Na+, K+ and NH4+ (Wessells et al., 2011).	32
Figure 2.4.4.1 Crystal structure of NASICON-type NTP, and a, b and c represent different axes (D.Wang et al., 2016).	33
Figure 2.4.4.2 Charge and discharge profiles of NTP-C/NMO full cell in three electrode configuration for different C-rates (Z.Li et al., 2012).	35
Figure 2.4.4.3 Galvanostatic cycling performance of NTP-C / NMO full cells at different rates (Z.Li et al., 2012).	36
Figure 3.1.1 Schematic experimental structure for CDI system.	38
Figure 3.3.1.1 Nickel hexacyanoferrate (NiHCF) preparation procedure.	43
Figure 3.3.2.1 Copper hexacyanoferrate (CuHCF) preparation procedure.	45
Figure 3.3.3.1 NaTi2(PO4)3@C preparation procedure.	47
Figure 3.4.2.1 NiHCF and CuHCF electrode preparation procedure.	49
Figure 3.4.3.1 NaTi2(PO4)3@C electrode preparation procedure.	51
Figure 3.4.4.1 Activated carbon (AC) electrode preparation procedure.	53
Figure 3.5.4.1 Schematic of the three-electrode measurement system.	57
Figure 3.6.1 Schematic diagram of CDI system	60
Figure 4.1.1.1 XRD patterns of NiHCF.	62
Figure 4.1.1.2 SEM and EDS images of NiHCF at different magnifications. 	63
Figure 4.1.2.1 Cyclic voltammograms of NiHCF electrode in 1M (a) NaCl or (b) KCl.	65
Figure 4.1.2.2 Cyclic voltammograms of the NiHCF electrodes in three different electrolytes (1 M of NaCl or NaCl+KCl or KCl aqueous solutions) at a scan rate of 1 mV/s after 10 cycles.	66
Figure 4.1.2.3 The electrochemical impedance spectra (EIS) of NiHCF measured at frequency range of 1 MHz to 1 Hz.	68
Figure 4.1.3.1 Electrosorption/desorption profiles of the (a)AC/AC, (b) NiHCF/AC CDI system in 200 mg/L NaCl solution (1.0 V).	71
Figure 4.1.3.2 Change profiles in (a) conductivity, and (b) concentration of Na+ during electrosorption/desorption processes of NiHCF/AC system at different applied voltages.	74
Figure 4.1.3.3 Removal of conductivity or Na+ concentration and electrosorption capacity of NiHCF/AC system at applied voltages from 0.6 V to 1.4 V.	75
Figure 4.1.3.4 The voltage distribution (%) during electrosorption/desorption of the (a) AC/AC system, (b-f) NiHCF/AC system at different voltages from 0.6 V to 1.4 V.	77
Figure 4.1.3.5 Theoretical removal ratio of sodium ion and chloride ion during NiHCF/AC CDI processes at different applied voltages.	79
Figure 4.1.3.6 Electrosorption/desorption of asymmetric NiHCF/AC system in 3.4 M (a) NaCl, or (b) KCl solution (1.0 V).	81
Figure 4.1.3.7 Electrosorption/desorption of asymmetric NiHCF/AC CDI system in 3.4 mM (a) NaCl, or (b) KCl solution for 10 cycles (1.0 V).	84
Figure 4.1.3.8 Electrosorption/desorption of asymmetric NiHCF/AC CDI system in 1.7 M NaCl +1.7 M KCl solution (1.0 V).	86
Figure 4.1.3.9 Schematic diagram of ion intercalation.	89
Figure 4.2.1.1 XRD patterns of CuHCF.	91
Figure 4.2.1.2 SEM and EDS image of CuHCF at different magnifications.	92
Figure 4.2.2.1 Cyclic voltammograms of CuHCF in 1 M (a) NaCl, or (b) KCl.	94
Figure 4.2.2.2 The electrochemical impedance spectra (EIS) measured at frequency range of 1 MHz to 1 Hz for CuHCF.	95
Figure 4.2.3.1 Electrosorption/desorption of asymmetric CuHCF/AC system in 3.4 M (a) NaCl, and (b) KCl solution (1.0 V).	97
Figure 4.2.3.2 Electrosorption/desorption of asymmetric CuHCF/AC system in 3.4 M (a) NaCl, (b) KCl solution (1.2 V).	100
Figure 4.3.1.1 XRD patterns of NTP@C.	103
Figure 4.3.1.2 SEM and EDS image of NTP@C.	104
Figure 4.3.1.3 TEM image of NTP@C.	105
Figure 4.3.2.1 Cyclic voltammograms of NTP@C electrode in 1 M NaCl at scan rate of 5 mV/s.	107
Figure 4.3.2.2 The electrochemical impedance spectra (EIS) measured at frequency range of 1 MHz to 1 Hz for NTP@C.	108
Figure 4.3.3.1 Electrosorption/desorption profiles of the NTP@C/AC electrode in 200 mg/L NaCl solution at (a)1.0 V (b)1.2 V.	110
Figure 4.3.3.2 Electrosorption/desorption of asymmetric NTP@C/AC system in 200 mg/L NaCl solution for 10 cycles (1.0 V).	112
Figure 4.4.1.1 The electrochemical impedance spectra (EIS) of NiHCF, CuHCF and NTP@C measured at frequency range of 1 MHz to 1 Hz.	114
Figure 4.4.2.1 Conductivity removal of NiHCF/AC, CuHCF/AC and NTP@C/AC in  three-cycle CDI experiment.	116
Figure 4.4.2.2 Comparison of sodium concentration removal of NiHCF/AC, CuHCF/AC and NTP@C/AC systems in 200 mg/L NaCl at 1.0 V.	117
 
List of Table
Table 3.2.1.1 Manufactures and purity of NiHCF medicines.	39
Table 3.2.1.2 Manufactures and purity of CuHCF medicines.	39
Table 3.2.1.3 Manufactures and purity of NaTi2(PO4)3@C medicines.	40
Table 3.2.1.4 Manufactures and purity of AC medicines.	40
Table 3.2.2.1 Manufacturers and model of equipment.	41
Table 4.1.3.1 Conductivity removal efficiency (%) and electrosorption capacity (mg NaCl/g) of the AC/AC or NiHCF/AC electrodes with an applied voltage (1.0 V) in 200 mg/L NaCl.	72
Table 4.1.3.2 Sodium concentration removal efficiency (%) and electrosorption capacity (mg Na+/g) of Na+ with the AC/AC or NiHCF/AC electrodes with an applied voltage (1.0 V) in 200 mg/L NaCl.	72
Table 4.1.3.3 Increase of removal of Na+ or removal of conductivity or electrosorption capacity of NiHCF/AC system at applied voltages from 0.6 V to 1.4 V.	75
Table 4.1.3.4 Ionic properties at infinite dilution in aqueous solutions at 25°C. (Aikens, 2009)	78
Table 4.1.3.5 Conductivity and sodium or potassium concentration removal efficiency (%) of the NiHCF/AC electrodes with an applied voltage (1 V) in 3.4 mM NaCl and KCl.	82
Table 4.1.3.6 Electrosorption capacity (mg/g and mmol/g) of Na+ and K+ with the NiHCF/AC electrodes in 3.4 mM NaCl and KCl.	82
Table 4.1.3.7 The conductivity removal of the three solutions.	86
Table 4.1.3.8 The Shannon radius and mobility of two cations.	89
Table 4.2.3.1 Conductivity removal efficiency (%) and electrosorption capacity (mg NaCl/g and mg KCl/g) of the CuHCF/AC electrodes with an applied voltage (1.0 V) in 3.4 mM NaCl and KCl.	98
Table 4.2.3.2 Sodium and potassium concentration removal efficiency (%) and electrosorption capacity (mg/g) of Na+ and K+ with the CuHCF/AC electrodes in 3.4 mM NaCl and KCl.	98
Table 4.2.3.3 Conductivity removal efficiency (%) and electrosorption capacity (mg NaCl/g and mg KCl/g) of the CuHCF/AC electrodes with an applied voltage (1.2 V) in 3.4 mM NaCl and KCl.	101
Table 4.2.3.4 Sodium and Potassium concentration removal efficiency (%) and electrosorption capacity (mg/g) of Na+ and K+ with the CuHCF/AC electrodes in 3.4 mM NaCl and KCl.	101
Table 4.3.3.1 Conductivity removal efficiency (%) and electrosorption capacity (mg NaCl/g) with NTP@C/AC system in 200 mg/L NaCl by applied 1.0 V and 1.2 V.	111
Table 4.3.3.2 Sodium concentration removal efficiency (%) and electrosorption capacity (mg Na+/g) of Na+ with the NTP@C/AC electrodes in 200 mg/L NaCl by applied 1.0 V and 1.2 V.	111
Table 4.3.3.3 Conductivity and sodium concentration removal efficiency (%) of the first, fourth, and ninth cycles.	112
Table 4.4.1.1 Comparison of equivalent circuit parameters of NiHCF, CuHCF and NTP@C.	114
Table 4.4.2.1 Conductivity removal of NiHCF/AC, CuHCF/AC and NTP@C/AC in three-cycle CDI experiment.	116
Table 4.4.2.2 Sodium concentration removal efficiency (%) and electrosorption capacity (mg Na+/g) of Na+ with the NiHCF/AC, CuHCF/AC and NTP@C/AC system in 200 mg/L NaCl.	117
Table 5.1 Pros and cons of asymmetric NiHCF/AC, CuHCF/AC, and NTP@C/AC CDI systems.	120

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