團隊合作在如今的組織裡被認為是不可或缺的，然而團隊的決策準則
型態卻絕少被完整的整理與討論，多半僅有對單一決策準則進行研究，就
對此下結論；又更少研究不同型態的準則對其它變數間的影響。
而在現代如此快速而多變的社會中，時間壓力對於決策更常是一個不
可或缺的變數，透過許多文獻探討，我們發現它或多或少影響了決策過
程，更影響了後續的結果。
團隊績效一直以來都是研究小團隊者相當關心的意題，也有相當程度
研究的累積。本研究因利用電腦公司經營模擬遊戲每季的結果，觀察團隊
決策的影響；因此取最廣泛被接受的財務指標做為觀察值。
此份研究以連續三年大學四年級策略管理課程的165 位學生、49 個三
到四人小團隊為樣本，透過一個電腦企業決策遊戲，控制實驗時間為變
數，蒐集每一季的決策準則型態、團隊決策結果所達成的公司績效與決策
滿意度來進行相關分析，結果卻顯示了與文獻探討大不相同的結論：
「團隊決策準則」、「時間壓力」、「團隊績效」與「成員滿意度」
任何變數兩兩之間均無相關或無顯著相關，與其它研究之結論明顯不同。
正因為研究數據結果如此慘淡；我們認為，摒除此研究的研究限制，
本研究提供與許多研究者不同的結果以供參考；我們同時認為，後續也值
得進行更深入細緻針對個別變數的研究。

It is believed that Collaborative team is indivisible in recent organization. However, there are rarely research to compare all types of group decision rules. Moreover, study the effect of different decision rules to different variables.

On the other hand, many literature point out that time pressure which affect to group process and the results is an important variable.

Through 165 senior students in college (49 teams) who took strategic management in 2003, 2004 and 2005 played a computerized decision game, we controlled decision time as an independent variable and collect decision rules, group performance and their satisfaction. We found that:

There isn’t correlation or correlation in significance between Group Decision Rules, Time Pressure, Group Performance or Member’s Satisfaction.

We consider that, without our limitation, this study provide results different with others.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH	1
1.1.	Background	1
1.2.	Purpose of Study	3
1.3.	Justification	3
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW	4
2.1.	Small Group (or Team)	4
2.1.1.	Small Group Decision Making	4
2.1.2.	Group versus Individual Decision Making	5
2.2.	Decision Making Processes	5
2.3.	Group Decision Rules	7
2.3.1.	Consensus	8
2.3.2.	Majority	11
2.3.3.	Minority	12
2.3.4.	Single Dominance	13
2.4.	Group Performance	13
2.5.	Member Satisfaction	14
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY	16
3.1.	Research Questions and Model	16
3.2.	Hypotheses	16
3.3.	Study Participants	17
3.4.	Measuring the Variable and Instruments	17
3.4.1.	Independent Variables	17
3.4.2.	Dependent Variables	17
3.5.	Procedure	18
3.6.	Data Analysis	18
CHAPTER 4 RESULT	19
CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION	22
5.1.	Relationship between Group Decision Time and Decision rule	22
5.2.	Relationship between Time Pressure and Group Performance	22
5.3.	Relationship between Time Pressure and Member’s Satisfaction	22
5.4.	Relationship between Group Decision Rules and Member’s Satisfaction	23
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION	24
6.1.	Limitation	24
REFERENCES	25

 
TABLES AND FIGURE

Tables

Table 4 . 1 Frequency of Decision Rules	19
Table 4 . 2 Descriptive Statistics of Decision Time	19
Table 4 . 3 Pearson Correlation	20

Figure

Figure 3 . 1 Research Model	16

Alexander, L. (1985). Successfully Implementing Strategic Decisions. Long Range Planning, 18, 91-97.
Alexander, L. (1991). Strategy Implementation: Nature of the Problem. In , D. E. (Eds.), International Review of Strategic Management (pp. 73-96). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 
Alexander, L. (1993, August). Why Employees Resist Strategy Implementation Efforts. Presented at the National Academy of Management, Atlanta, GA. 
Archibald,D. (1976). Managing High-Technology Programs and Projects. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 
Bales, R. (1954). In Conference. Harvard Business Review, 32, 44-50. 
Bales, R., and Cohen, S. (1979). SYMLOG:  A System for the Multiple Level Observation of Groups. New York: The Free Press. 
Barnard, C. (1938). The Functions of the Executive. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 
Bayless, O. (1967). An Alternative Pattern for Problem Solving Discussion. Journal of Communication, 17, 188-197. 
Bechtell, M. (1995). The Management Compass: Steering the Corporation Using Hoshin Planning. New York: The American Management Association. 
Beekun, R. (1989). Assessing the Effectiveness of Sociotechnical Interventions: Antidote or Fad? Human Relations, 42, 877-897. 
Beer, M., Eisenstat, R., and Spector, (1990). Why Change Programs Don't Produce Change. Harvard Business Review, 68, 158-166. 
Bettenhausen, K. (1991). Five Years of Groups Research: What We Have Learned and What Needs to Be Addressed. Journal of Management, 17, 345-381. 
Bourgeois, L., and Brodwin, D. (1984). Strategic Implementation:  Five Approaches to an Elusive Phenomenon. Strategic Management Journal, 5, 241-264. 
Bowen, D. (1995). Work Group Research: Past Strategies and Future Opportunities. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 41, 30-38. 
Brilhart, J., and Jochem, L. (1964). Effects of Different Patterns on Outcomes of Problem-Solving Discussion. Journal of Applied Psychology, 48, 175-179. 
Burke, R. (1970). Methods of Resolving Superior-Subordinate Conflict: The Constructive Use of Subordinate Differences and Disagreements. Organization Behavior and Human Performance, 5, 393-411. 
Cabana, S. (1995). Participative Design Works, Partially Participative Doesn't. Journal for Quality and Participation, January/February, 10-19. 
Campbell, J. (1952). Individual versus Group Problem Solving in an Industrial Sample. Journal of Applied Psychology, 52, 205-210. 
Cherns, A. (1987). Principles of Socio-Technical Design.  Human Relations, 40, 153-162. 
Chung, K., and Ferris, M. (1971). An Inquiry of the Nominal Group Process. Academy of Management Journal, 14, 520-24. 
Collaros, P., and Anderson, L. (1969). The Effect of Perceived Expertness upon Creativity of Members of Brainstorming Groups. Journal of Applied Psychology, 53, 159-63. 
Collins, B., and Guetzhow, H. (1964). A Social Psychology for Group Decision Making. New York: Wiley. 
Collins, B., and Huge, E. (1993). Management By Policy:  How Companies Focus Their Total Quality Efforts to Achieve Competitive Advantage. Milwaukee, WI: ASQC Quality Press. 
Connolly, T., Jessup, L., and Valacich, J. (1990). Effects of anonymity and Evaluative Tone on Idea Generation in Computer-Mediated Groups. Management Science, 36, 689-703. 
David, F. (1987). Concepts of Strategic Management. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 
Delbecq, A., Van de Ven, A., and Gustafson, D. (1975). Group Techniques for Program Planning. Glenview, IL: Scott-Foresman. 
DeSanctis, G., and Gallupe, R. (1987). A Foundation for the Study of Group Decision Support Systems. Management Science, 33, 589-609. 
Dewey, J. (1910). How We Think. Boston: D.C. Heath. 
DiSalvo, V., Nikkel, E., and Monroe, C. (1989). Theory and Practice:  A Field Investigation and Identification of Group Members' Perceptions of Problems Facing Natural Work Groups. Small Group Behavior, 20, 551-567. 
Dumaine, B. (1994). The Trouble with Teams. Fortune, 130, 86-91. 
Egan, D. (1988). Individual Differences in Human-Computer Interaction. In Helander, M. (Eds.), Handbook of Human-computer Interactions (pp. 543-68). North-Holland: Elsevier Science Publishers. 
Egan, D., and Gomez, L. (1985). Assaying, Isolating and Accommodating Individual Differences in Learning a Complex Skill. In Dillion, R. (Eds.), Individual Differences in Cognition. New York: Academic Press. 
Fleishman, E., and Zaccaro, S. (1992). Toward a Taxonomy of Team Performance. In Swezey, R. and Salas, E. (Eds.), Teams: Their Training and Performance (pp. 31¬56). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation. 
Floyd, S., and Wooldridge, B. (1992). Managing Strategic Consensus: The Foundation of Effective Implementation. The Academy of Management Executive, 6, 27-39. 
Galbraith, J., and Kazanjian, R. (1986). Strategy Implementation: Structure, Systems and Process. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Company. 
Gallupe, R., and DeSanctis, G. (1988). Computer-Based Support for Group Problem-Finding: An Experimental Investigation. MIS Quarterly, 12, 277-296. 
Gersick, C. (1988). Time and Transition in Work Teams: Toward a New Model of Group Development. Academy of Management Journal, 31, 9-41. 
Gersick, C. (1989). Marking Time: Predictable Transitions in Task Groups. Academy of Management Journal, 32, 274-309. 
Gersick, C., and Davis-Sacks, M.L. (1990). Summary: Task Forces. In Hackman, J. R. (Eds.), Groups That Work (and Those That Don't) (pp. 146-154). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 
Giles, W. (1991). Making Strategy Work. Long Range Planning, 24, 75-91. 
Gladstein, D. (1984). Groups in Context: A Model of Task Group Effectiveness. Administrative Science Quarterly, 29, 499-517. 
GOAL/QPC. (1989). Hoshin Planning: A Planning System for Implementing Total Quality Management. GOAL/QPC, Methuen, MA. 
Goldman, S., Nagel, R., and Preiss, K. (1995). Agile Competitors and Virtual Organizations: Strategies for Enriching the Customer. New York: Nan Nostrand Reinhold. 
Gomez, L., Egan, D., and Bowers, C. (1986). Learning to Use a Text Editor: Some Learner Characteristics that Predict Success. Human-computer Interaction, 2, 1¬23. 
Goodman, P., Ravlin, E., and Argote, L. (1986). Current Thinking About Groups:  Setting the Stage for New Ideas. In Goodman, P. S. (Eds.), Designing Effective Work Groups (pp. 1-33). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. 
Gouran, D., Brown, C., and Henry,D. (1978).  Behavioral Correlates of Perceptions of Quality in Decision-Making Discussions. Communication Monographs, 45, 51-63. 
Govindarajan, V. (1988). A Contingency Approach to Strategy Implementation at the Business-Unit Level: Integrating Administrative Mechanisms with Strategy. Academy of Management Journal, 31, 828-853. 
Govindarajan, V. (1989). Implementing Competitive Strategies at the Business Unit Level: Implications of Matching Managers to Strategies. Strategic Management Journal, 10, 251-269. 
Gupta, A., and Govindarajan, V. (1984). Business Unit Strategy, Managerial Characteristics, and Business Unit Effectiveness at Strategy Implementation. Academy of Management Journal, 27, 25-41. 
Guth, W. and MacMillan, I. (1986). Strategy Implementation Versus Middle Management Self-Interest. Strategic Management Journal, 7, 313-327. 
Guzzo, R. (1986). Group Decision Making and Group Effectiveness in Organizations. In Goodman, P. (Eds.), Designing Effective Work Groups (pp. 34-71). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. 
Hackman, J., and Kaplan, R. (1974). Interventions into Group Process: An Approach to Improving the Effectiveness of Groups. Decision Sciences, 5, 459-480. 
Hackman, J., and Morris, C. (1975). Group Tasks, Group Interaction Process and Group Performance Effectiveness. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 8, 45¬99. 
Hackman, J., and Wageman, R. (1996). Total Quality Management: Empirical, Conceptual and Practical Issues. Administrative Science Quarterly, 40, 309-342.
Hall, J., and Watson, W. (1970). The Effects of a Normative Intervention on Group Decision Making Performance. Human Relations, 23, 299-317. 
Hambrick, D., and Cannella, A. (1989). Strategy Implementation as Substance and Selling. Academy of Management Executive, 3, 278-285. 
Hamel, G., and Prahalad, C. (1989). Strategic Intent. Harvard Business Review, May-June, 63-75. 
Hare, A., Borgatta, E., and Bales, R. (1967). Small Groups: Studies in Social Interactions. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 
Hendrick, H. (1986). Macroergonomics: A Conceptual Model for Integrating Human Factors with Organizational Design. In Hendrick, H. (Eds.), Human Factors in Organizational Design and Management (pp. 467-477). New York: North Holland. 
Hendrick, H. (1991). Ergonomics in Organizational Design and Management. Ergonom¬ics, 34, 743-756. 
Hersey, P. and Blanchad, K. (1982). Management of Organizational Behavior Utilizing Human Research. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 
Hill, G. (1982). Group versus Individual Performance. Psychological Bulletin, 3, 517-539. 
Hirokawa, R., Ice, R., and Cook, J. (1988). Preference for Procedural Order, Discussion Structure and Group Decision Performance. Communication Quarterly, 36, 217¬226. 
Hirokawa, R. (1982). Group Communication and Problem-Solving Effectiveness: A Critical Review of Inconsistent Findings. Communication Quarterly, 30, 134-141. 
Hirokawa, R. (1985). Discussion Procedures and Decision-Making Performance: A Test of a Functional Perspective. Human Communication Research, 12, 203-224. 
Ho, T., and Raman, K. (1991). The Effect of GDSS and Elected Leadership on Small Group Meetings. Journal of Management Information Systems, 8, 109-133. 
Hoffman, L. (1959). Homogeneity of Member Personality and Its Effect on Group Problem-Solving. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58, 27-32. 
Hoffman, L., Harburg, E., and Maier, N. (1962). Differences and Disagreement as Factors in Creative Problem Solving. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 64, 206¬14. 
Hoffman, L. (1979). Applying Experimental Research on Group Problem Solving to Organizations. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 15, 375-391. 
Hoffman, L., and Maier, N. (1961). Quality and Acceptance of Problem Solutions by Members of Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Groups. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62, 401-407. 
Hollingshead, A., and McGrath, J. (1986). Computer-Assisted Groups: A Critical Review of the Empirical Research. In (Eds.), Designing Effective Work Groups (pp. 46¬78). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. 
Hollman, C., and Hendricks, H. (1972). Adequacy of Group Decisions as a Function of the Decision-Making Process. Academy of Management Journal, 15, 175-84. Hrebiniak, L., and Joyce, W. (1984). Implementing Strategy. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. 
Huber, G. (1984). The Nature and Design of Post-Industrial Organizations. Management Science, 30, 928-951. 
Huff, A., and Reger, R. (1987). A Review of Strategic Process Research. Journal of Management, 13, 211-236. 
Jarvenpaa, S., Rao, V., and Huber, G. (1988). Computer Support for Meetings of Groups Working on Unstructured Problems: A Field Experiment. MIS Quarterly, 12, 645¬666. 
Kaplin, R., and Norton, D. (1996). Using the Balanced Scorecard as a Strategic Management System. Harvard Business Review, 73, 75-85. 
Karger, D. (1973). Integrating Formal Long-Range Planning and How to Do It.  Long Range Planning, 6, 31-34. 
Katz, D., and Kahn, R. (1978). The Social Psychology of Organizations. New York: Wiley & Sons. 
Kepner, C., and Tregoe, B. (1968). The Rational Manager: A Systematic Approach to Problem Solving and Decision Making. New York: McGraw-Hill. 
Kepner, C. and Tregoe, B. Worker Performance. Kepner-Tregoe, Inc., Princeton, NJ, 1996. 
King, B. (1989). Hoshin Planning:  The Developmental Approach. Methuen, MA: GOAL/QPC. 
Kirchmeyer, C., and Cohen, A. (1992). Multicultural Groups: Their Preferences and Reactions to Constructive Conflict. Group and Organizational Management, 17, 153-70. 
Kleiner, B. (1996). Deengineering: The Latest Breakthrough in Organizational Change? In Hendrick, H. (Eds.), Human Factors in Organizational Design and Management (pp. 359-364). New York: North Holland. 
Kleiner, B., and Hertweck, B. (1996). By Which Method: Total Quality Management, Reengineering, or Deengineering?  Engineering Management Journal, January. 
Knutson, T., and Holdridge, W. (1975). Orientation Behavior, Leadership and Consensus: A Possible Functional Relationship. Speech Monographs, 42, 107-114. 
Kolodny, H., and Kiggundu, M. (1980). Towards the Development of a Sociotechnical Systems Model in Woodlands Mechanical Harvesting. Human Relations, 33, 623¬645. 
Kono, T. (1992). Long Range Planning of Japanese Corporations. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co. 
Kormanski, C. (1991). Theory in Group Work: Using Theory as a Foundation for Group Training Designs. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 16, 215-222. 
Kotter, J. (1995). Leading Change: Why Transformation Efforts Fail. Harvard Business Review, March/April, 59-67. 
Lanzetta, J., and Roby, T. (1960). The Relationship Between Certain Group Process Variables and Group Problem-Solving Efficiency. Journal of Social Psychology, 52, 135-48. 
Lawrence, P. (1954). How to Deal with Resistance to Change. Harvard Business Review, May-June, 48-56. 
Lewis, J. (1995). The Project Manager's Desk Handbook. Chicago: Irwin Professional Publishing. 
Longenecker, C., and Gioia, D. (1991). SMR Forum: Ten Myths of Managing Managers. Sloan Management Review, 33, 81-90. 
Maier, N., and Maier, R. (1957). An Experimental Test of the Effects of "Developmental" vs. "Free" Discussions on the Quality of Group Discussions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 41, 320-323. 
Maier, N., and Hoffman, L. (1960). Quality of First and Second Solution in Group Problem Solving. Journal of Applied Psychology, 44, 278-83. 
Marcus, A. (1988). Implementation Externally Induced Innovations: A Comparison of Rule-Bound and Autonomous Approaches. Academy of Management Journal, 31, 235-256. 
Mathieu, J., and Zajac, D. (1990). A Review and Meta-Analysis of the Antecedents, Correlates, and Consequences of Organizational Commitment. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 171-194. 
McGrath, J. (1964). Social Psychology: A Brief Introduction. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. 
McGrath, J. & Kelly, J.(1986) Time an human interaction: Toward a social psychology of time. New York: Guilford.
McGrath, J. & Kelly, J.(1990) Temporal context and temporal patterning in social psychology: A preminary statement of a social psychological theory of time. Manuscript submitted for publication.
McGrath, J. (1991). Time, Interaction and Performance (TIP): A Theory of Groups. Small Group Research, 22, 147-174. 
McGrath, J., and Hollingshead, A. (1994). Groups Interacting with Technology. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. 
McIntyre, R., and Salas, E. (1995). Measuring and Managing for Team Performance: Emerging Principles from Complex Environments. In Guzzo, R. A., Salas, E. and Associates, a. (Eds.), Team Effectiveness and Decision Making in Organizations (pp. 9-45). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. 
McLeod, P. (1992). An Assessment of the Experimental Literature on Electronic Support of Group Work: Results of a Meta-Analysis. Human-Computer Interaction, 7, 281-314. 
McLeod, P., and Liker, J. (1992). Electronic Meeting Systems: Evidence from a Low Structure Environment. Information Systems Research, 3, 195-225. 
McMahon, J. (1984). Toward a Contingency Theory. Academy of Management Journal, 16, 624. 
Melum, M., and Collect, C. (1995). Breakthrough Leadership:  Achieving Organizational Alignment Through Hoshin Planning. Chicago: American Hospital Publishing, Inc. 
Mento, A., Steel, R., and Karren, R. (1987). A Meta-Analytic Study of the Effects of Goal Setting on Task Performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 39, 52-83. 
Monczka, R., and Trent, R. (1993). Cross-Functional Sourcing Team Effectiveness. Tempe, AZ: Center for Advanced Purchasing Studies. 
Mott, P. (1972). Characteristics of Effective Organizations. New York: Harper and Row Publishers. 
Muckler, F., and Seven, S. (1992). Selecting Performance Measures: 'Objective’ versus ‘Subjective’ Measurement. Human Factors, 34, 441-455. 
Nakamura, S. (1993). The New Standardization:  Keystone of Continuous Improvement in Manufacturing. Portland, OR: Productivity Press. 
Nemiroff, P., Passmore, W., and Ford, D. (1976). The Effects of Two Normative Structural Interventions on Established and Ad Hoc Groups:  Implications. Decision Sciences, 7, 841-55. 
Nunamaker, J., Dennis, A., Valacich, J., Vogel, D., and George, J. (1991). Electronic Meeting Systems To Support Group Work. Communications of the ACM, 34, 40¬61. 
Nutt, P. (1986). Tactics of Implementation. Academy of Management Journal, 29, 230¬261. Parker, G. (1994). Cross-Functional Teams: Working with Allies, Enemies, and Other Strangers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. 
Pasmore, W., Francis, C., and Haldeman, J. (1982). Sociotechnical Systems: A North American Reflection on Empirical Studies of the Seventies. Human Relations, 35, 1179-1204. 
Pasmore, W. (1988). Designing Effective Organizations: The Sociotechnical Systems Perspective. New York: Wiley & Sons. 
Pavitt, C. (1993). What (Little) We Know About Formal Group Discussion Procedures (A Review of Relevant Research). Small Group Research, 24, 217-35. 
Pfeffer, J., and O'Reilly, C. (1987). Hospital Demography and Turnover Among Nurses. Industrial Relations, 36, 158-173. 
Pinsonneault, A., and Kraemer, K. (1990). The Effects of Electronic Meetings on Group Processes and Outcomes: An Assessment of the Empirical Research. European Journal of Operational Research, 46, 143-161. 
Pinto, J., and Slevin, D. (1988). Project Success:  Definitions and Measurement Techniques. Project Management Journal, 19, 67-71. 
Pinto, M., Pinto, J., and Prescott, J. (1993). Antecedents and Consequences of Project Team Cross-functional Cooperation. Management Science, 39, 1281-1297. 
Polley, R., Hare, A., and Stone, P. (1988). The SYMLOG Practitioner:  Applications of Small Group Research. New York: Praeger. 
Pollock, C., and Kanachowski, A. (1993). Application of Theories of Decision Making to Group Decision Support Systems (GDSS). International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 5, 71-94. 
Poole, M. (1978). An Information-Task Approach to Organizational Communication. Academy Management Review, 30, 493-504. 
Poole, M., and Holmes, M. (1995). Decision Development in Computer-Assisted Group Decision Making. Human Communication Research, 22, 90-127. 
Quinn, J. (1980). Formulating Strategy One Step at a Time. Journal of Business Strategy, 1, 42-63. 
Reukert, R., and Walker, O. (1987). Interaction Between Marketing and R&D Departments. Strategic Management Journal, 8, 233-248. 
Rotter, G. (1969). Group and Individual Effects in Problem Solving. Journal of Applied Psychology, 53, 338-41. 
Rowe, A., Boulgarides, J., and McGrath, M. (1984). Managerial Decision Making. Chicago: Science Research Associates, Inc. 
Salas, E., Dickinson, T., Converse, S., and Tannenbaum, S. (1992). Toward an Understanding of Team Performance and Training. In Swezey, R. W. and Salas, E. (Eds.), Teams:  Their Training and Performance (pp. 3-29). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation. 
Scholtes, P. (1995). Teams in the Age of Systems. Quality Progress, 28, 51-59. 
Schrage, M. (1990). Shared Minds: The New Technologies of Collaboration. New York: Random House. 
Shaw, M. (1932). A Comparison of Individuals and Small Groups in the Rational Solution of Complex Problems. American Journal of Psychology, 44, 491-504. 
Shaw, M. (1976). Group Dynamics: The Psychology of Small Group Behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. 
Siegel, J., Dubrovsky, V., Kiesler, S., and McGuire, T. (1986). Group Processes in Computer-Mediated Communications. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 37, 157-187. 
Simon, H. (1977). The New Science of Management Decision. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. 
Sink, D., and Tuttle, T. (1989). Planning and Measurement in Your Organization of the Future. Norcross: GA: Industrial Engineering and Management Press. 
Slevin, D., and Pinto, J. (1987). Balancing Strategy and Tactics in Project Implementation. Sloan Management Review, 33, 33-41. 
Smith, H. (1989). Group vs. Individual Problem Solving and Type of Problem Solved. Small Group Behavior, 20, 357-366. 
Sproull, L., and Kiesler, S. (1986). Reducing Social Context Cues: Electronic Mail in Organizational Communication. Management Science, 32, 1492-1512. 
Stasser, G., Taylor, L., and Hanna, C. (1989). Information Sampling in Structured and Unstructured Discussions of Three- and Six-person Groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 67-78. 
Steiner, I. (1972). Group Process and Productivity. New York: Academic Press. 
Steiss, A. (1985). Strategic Management and Organizational Decision Making. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books. 
Stevens, J., Beyer, J.,and Trice, H. (1980). Managerial Receptivity and Implementation of Policies. Journal of Management, 6, 33-54. 
Stonich, P. (1982). Implementing Strategy: Making Strategy Happen. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing Company. 
Tannenbaum, S., Beard and Salas, E. (1992). Team Building and Its Influence on Team Effectiveness: An Examination of Conceptual and Empirical Developments. In Kelley, D. (Ed.), Issues, Theory, and Research in Industiral/Organizational Psychology. (pp. 117-153). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation. 
Taylor, D. (1958). Does Group Participation When Using Brainstorming Facilitate or Inhibit Creative Thinking? Administrative Science Quarterly, 3, 23-47. 
Tompkins and Associates. (1995). Teaming for Excellence Survey. Tompkins Associates Incorporated, Raleigh, NC. 
Triandes, H., Hall, E. and Ewen, R. (1965). Member Heterogeneity and Dyadic Creativity. Human Resources, 18, 33-35. 
Trist, E. and Hugh, M. (1993). The Social Engagement of Social Science: A Tavistock Anthology. Philadelphia, PA: University of PA Press. 
Tsui, A., and O'Reilly, C. (1989). Beyond Simple Demographic Effects:  The Importance of Relational Demography in Superior-Subordinate Dyads. Academy of Management Journal, 32, 402-23. 
Turoff, M. and Hiltz, S. (1982). Computer Support for Group Versus Individual Decisions. IEEE Transactions on Communications, 30, 82-90. 
VanAken, E., and Kleiner, B. (1997). Determinants of Effectiveness for Cross-functional Organizational Design Teams. Quality Management Journal.  (in press). 
Van de Ven, A. (1976). On the Nature, Formation and Maintenance of Relations Among Organizations. Academy of Management Review, 1, 24-36. 
Van de Ven, A., and Delbecq, A. (1971). Nominal versus Interacting Group Processes for Committee Decision-Making Effectiveness. Academy of Management Journal, 14, 203-12. 
Van Gundy, A. (1981). Techniques of Structured Problem Solving. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. 
Wagner, W., Pfeffer, J., and O'Reilly, C. (1984). Organizational Demography and Turnover in Top Management Groups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 29, 74¬92. 
Watson, G. (1928). Do Groups Think More Effectively Than Individuals. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 23, 328-336. 
Watson, R., DeSanctis, G., and Poole, M. (1988). Using a GDSS to Facilitate Group Consensus: Some Intended and Unintended Consequences. MIS Quarterly, 12, 463-477. 
White, S., Dittriich, J., and Lang, J. (1980). The Effects of Group Decision Making Process and Problem Solving. Administrative Science Quarterly, 25, 428-440. 
Zigurs, I., Poole, M., and DeSanctis, G. (1991). A Study of Influence in Computer-Mediated Group Decision Making. Journal of Management Information Systems, 7, 51-70. 
Zmund, R., and McLaughlin, C. (1989). That's Not My Job:  Managing Secondary Tasks Effectively. Sloan Management Review, 30, 25-34.