本研究旨在探討深思反省與苦惱自責者兩種不同反芻反應風格者，以及高、低反芻傾向者的思考型態，分別以什麼樣的書寫語言呈現在觀點轉換書寫文本中，兩兩一組進行文本比較分析。此外本研究亦探討觀點轉換書寫從自身轉換到對方、第三者觀點，這三種觀點文本的語言特性與心理意涵。
研究發現如下：
一、深思反省者於文本的敘述者與敘述內容保持一定距離，客觀事件描述交代明確，主觀情緒表達較少。苦惱自責者於文本的敘述者較貼近敘述內容，表達較豐富的內在想法與感受。
二、高反芻傾向者於自身觀點的事件描述相當詳細，自身和對方觀點的敘述焦點通常圍繞在敘述者身上。低反芻傾向者於自身觀點之事件描述簡要，缺乏具體細節，語氣較為平淡理性。
三、自身觀點文本的客觀外在描述與主觀內在表達皆相當豐富，使用較多第一人稱單數、負面心理狀態詞與因果詞。對方觀點文本的述內容顯示了書寫者如何感同身受，以對方角度發聲的能力。人稱使用雖仍以第一人稱單數為主，不過第一人稱複數和第三人稱單數為所有觀點中使用最多。認知詞使用也有增加的趨勢。第三者觀點文本的客觀外在描述與主觀內在表達皆少。認知詞、中性和正向心理狀態詞為所有觀點中使用最多。人稱詞使用種類較為廣泛。

The research aims at investigating (a) how people with different ruminative response styles (reflection and brooding) would recall and write their negative interpersonal experiences from different perspectives; (b) how high ruminators and low ruminators would recall and write their negative interpersonal experiences from different perspectives; (c) exploring what language properties and psychological meanings would be suggested by different perspectives writing, included the field, the other, and the third-person perspective. 
The results are presented as follow:
1.In comparison with the reflective and the brooding ruminators, the reflective ruminators keeping their distance from narration, describe more details about the interpersonal events, and less about their feelings. The brooding ruminators are relatively close to their narration with abundant expression of their inner thoughts and feelings. 
2.In comparison with high and low ruminators, the high ruminators describe more interpersonal events with the field perspective. And the narratives with the other and third person perspective mostly focus on the narrators themselves. In contrast, the low ruminators sketch the interpersonal events briefly without concrete descriptions about what really happened to them at that time. As such, the low ruminators with the field perspective narrated their experiences more rationally.
3.The field perspective texts are full of the objective description and the subjective expression, in which the first person singular pronouns, negative descriptive words for mood, and causal words are more frequently used. As for the narrative of the other perspective, it shows how the narrators step in the other’s shoes and articulate their thoughts in the other’s mouth. The major pronouns used in the other perspective is still the first person singular pronouns, and the first person plural pronouns as well as the third-person singular pronouns are both the most frequently used of all the perspectives. In the third person perspective texts, though the objective description and the subjective expression are both less than other perspectives, the cognitive words, neutral and positive descriptive words for mood are the most frequently used among all of the perspectives. Besides, the third person texts show more various pronouns than other perspectives.

目錄
第一章 緒論
第一節 研究背景與動機	1
第二節 研究目的與研究問題	5
第三節 名詞釋義	6
第二章 文獻探討
第一節 反芻思考的特性與理論	7
第二節 自我聚焦與反芻思考的交會	12
第三節 正念、去中心對憂鬱反芻的療效	17
第四節 觀點轉換書寫於反芻思考的適用性	18
第三章 研究方法
第一節 研究對象	21
第二節 研究工具	21
第三節 研究程序	24
第四章 研究結果
第一節 研究參與者的整體特性	32
第二節 不同反芻反應風格者的文本比較分析	36
第三節 高、低反芻傾向者的文本比較分析	46
第四節 自身、對方、第三者觀點的文本比較分析	58
第五章 討論與建議
第一節 討論	67
第二節 研究限制與建議	75
參考文獻
中文部分	78
英文部分	79
附錄
附錄一：中文版反應風格量表修訂短版使用授權書	87
附錄二：研究參與同意書	88
附錄三：觀點轉換書寫說明書	89 

表目次
表 1不同來源與發佈管道回收之有效問卷整理	26
表 2 BDI篩選前後之問卷份數於各組分佈情形	27
表 3 研究參與者人口變項特性(N=225)	32
表 4 研究參與者BDI得分篩選與自殺意念人數於性別、學院的分布情況	33
表 5 研究參與者憂鬱程度之描述統計	34
表 6 研究參與者反應風格之描述統計	34
表 7三段觀點轉換書寫之研究參與人數	35
表 8深思反省者不同觀點之書寫字數	36
表 9深思反省者回憶之人際事件發生時間、對象，與其之關係一覽表	37
表 10深思反省者於不同觀點使用之人稱字詞數量	37
表 11深思反省者於不同觀點使用之B類字詞數量	38
表 12苦惱自責者不同觀點之書寫字數	39
表 13苦惱自責者回憶之人際事件發生時間、對象，與其之關係一覽表	40
表 14苦惱自責者於不同觀點使用之人稱字詞數量	40
表 15 苦惱自責者於不同觀點使用之B類字詞數量	41
表 16深思反省者與苦惱自責者於不同觀點使用B3、B5、B2類的字詞數量	44
表 17深思反省者與苦惱自責者於不同觀點使用B4、B6W類的字詞數量	44
表 18深思反省者與苦惱自責者於不同觀點的敘述回憶方式	45
表 19高反芻傾向者不同觀點之書寫字數	46
表 20高反芻傾向者回憶之人際事件發生時間、對象，與其之關係一覽表	47
表 21高反芻傾向者於不同觀點使用之人稱字詞數量	48
表 22高反芻傾向者於不同觀點使用之B類字詞數量	48
表 23低反芻傾向者不同觀點之書寫字數	50
表 24低反芻傾向者回憶之人際事件發生時間、對象，與其之關係一覽表	50
表 25低反芻傾向者於不同觀點使用之人稱字詞數量	51
表 26低反芻傾向者於不同觀點使用之B類字詞數量	52
表 27高反芻傾向者與低反芻傾向者於不同觀點的敘述回憶方式	58
表 28不同觀點之書寫字數	59
表 29回憶之人際事件發生時間、對象，與其之關係一覽表	60
表 30不同觀點使用之人稱字詞數量	61
表 31不同觀點使用之B類字詞數量	61
表 32不同觀點文本綜合分析一覽表	66
表 33每個字詞類別使用次數最多之觀點及次數一覽表	66
圖目次
圖 1 研究程序圖	24

參考文獻
中文部分
王家齊(2012)。「人們如何活在憂鬱之中?」─以現象學方法分析憂鬱症患者的反覆思考經驗(未出版之碩士論文)。輔仁大學，新北市。
李素芬(2009)。憂鬱症團體領導者心理位移之經驗及影響分析研究。(未出版之博士論文)。台灣師範大學，臺北市。
李非、金樹人(2016)。心理位移日記書寫詞語結構與內涵之話語分析。教育心理學報，47(3)，305-327。
周慶華(2002)。故事學。台北市：五南。
周嘉娸(2008)。憂鬱反芻對工作記憶容量的影響之初探(未出版之碩士論文)。台灣大學，臺北市。
金樹人(2010)。心理位移之結構特性及其辯證現象之分析：自我多重面向的敘寫與敘說。中華輔導與諮商學報，28，187-228。
涂珮瓊、許文耀(2008)。反芻的多向度對大學生負向情緒變化之影響。中華心理學刊，50(3)，271-287。
張仁和、黃金蘭、林以正(2013)。從情緒平和與止觀探討心理位移日記書寫方法的療癒機制。教育心理學報，44(3)，589-608。
游勝翔(2004)。反芻型反應風格、自傳式記憶與憂鬱之關聯性探討(未出版之碩士論文)。台灣大學，臺北市。
游勝翔、陳淑惠、張金堅(2008)。乳癌患者之反芻反應風格對其術後憂鬱與創傷後症狀之預測。中華心理學刊，50(3)，289-302。
黃金蘭、林以正(2014)。語言與心理彈性：語言風格變化作為觀點轉換内隱指標的檢驗。行政院科技部專題研究計畫成果報告(編號NSC 101-2410-H-011-009-)，未出版。
潘慧玲(1994)。角色取替的探討。教育研究所集刊，35，193-207。
劉令恬(2011)。自我反思反芻與憂鬱情緒在自傳式記憶特性之探討(未出版之碩士論文)。政治大學，臺北市。
盧孟良、車先蕙、張尚文、沈武典(2002)。中文版貝克憂鬱量表第二版之信度和效度。台灣精神醫學，16，301-310。

英文部分
Boals, A., & Klein, K. (2005). Word use in emotional narratives about failed romantic relationships and subsequent mental health. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 24, 252-268.
Brinker, J. K. & Dozois, D. J. A. (2009). Ruminative thought style and depressed mood. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65(1), 1-19.
Brown, K. W., Ryan, R. M., Creswell, J. D. (2007). Mindfulness: Theoretical Foundations and Evidence for its Salutary Effects. Psychological Inquiry, 18(4), 211-237. 
Campbell, J. D., Trapnell, P. D., Heine, S. J., Katz, I. M., Lavallee, L. F., & Lehman, D. R. (1996). Self-concept clarity: Measurement, personality correlates, and cultural boundaries. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(1), 141-156.
Campbell, R. S., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2003). The secret life of pronouns: Flexibility in writing style and physical health. Psychological Science, 14(1), 60-65.
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1981). Attention and self-regulation: A control-therapy approach to human behavior. Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany: Springer-Verlag.
Connor, R. C. & Noyce, R. (2008). Personality and cognitive processes: self-criticism and different types of rumination as predictors of suicidal ideation. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46, 392-401.
Davis, R. N., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2000). Cognitive inflexibility among ruminators and nonruminators. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 24, 699-711.
Deyo, M., Wilson, K. A., Ong, J., & Koopman, C. (2009). Mindfulness and rumination: Does mindfulness training lead to reductions in the ruminative thinking associated with depression? Explorer, 5(5), 265-271.
Fenigstein, A., & Levine, M. P. (1984). Self-attention, concept activation, and the causal self. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 20, 231-245.
Fritz, H. L. (1998). The role of rumination in adjustment to a first coronary event. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from https://goo.gl/U7dkq6
Gortner, E., Rude, S. S., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2006). Benefits of expressive writing in lowering rumination and depressive symptoms. Behavior Therapy, 37, 292-203.
Hofmannm S. G., Sawyer, A. T., Fang, A., Asnaani, A. (2012). Emotion dysregulation model of mood and anxiety disorders. Depression and Anxiety, 29, 409-416. doi: 10.1002/da.21888
Ingram, R. E. (1990). Self-focused attention in clinical disorders: Review and a conceptual model. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 156-176.
Ingram, R. E., Lumry, A. E., Cruet, D., & Sieber, W. (1987). Attentional processes in depressive disorders. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 11(3), 351-360.
Joormann, J., Dkane, M., & Gotlib, I. H. (2006). Adaptive and maladaptive components of rumination? Diagnostic specificity and relation to depressive biases. Behavior Therapy, 37, 269-280.
Just, N., & Alloy, L. B. (1997). The response styles theory of depression: Tests and an extension of the theory. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106(2), 221-229.
Kross, E., Ayduk, O., and Mischel, W. (2005). When asking” why” does not hurt: Distinguishing rumination from reflective processing of negative emotions. Psychological Science, 16(9), 709-715.
Kuyken, W., & Moulds, M. L. (2009). Remembering as an observer: How is autobiographical memory retrieval vantage perspective linked to depression. Memory, 17(6), 624-634. doi:10.1080/09658210902984526
Lepore, S. J. (1997). Expressive writing moderates the relation between intrusive thoughts and depressive symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(5), 1030-1037.
Lo, C. S. L., Ho, S. M. Y., Yu, N. K. K, & Siu, B. P. Y. (2014). Decentering mediates the effect of ruminative and experiential self-focus on negative thinking in depression. Cognitive Therapy Research, 38, 389-396. doi:10.1007/s10608-014-9603-2
Lyubomirsky, S., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1993). Self-perpetuating properties of dysphoric rumination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(2), 339-349.
Lyubomirsky, S., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1995). Effects of self-focused rumination on negative thinking and interpersonal problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(1), 176-190.
Martin, L. L. & Tesser, A. (1989). Toward a motivational and structural theory of ruminative thought. In J. S. Uleman & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended Thought (pp. 306-326). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Martin, L. L. & Tesser, A. (1996). Some ruminative thoughts. In R. S. Wyer, Jr (Eds.), Ruminative Thoughts: Advanced in Social Cognition, Volume IX (pp. 1-47). Mahwah, New Jersey. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Martin, L. L., Tesser, A., & McIntosh, W. D. (1993). Wanting but not having: The effect of unattained goals on thoughts and feelings. In D. M. Wegner & J. W. Pennebaker (Eds.), Handbook of Mental Control (pp. 552-572). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.  
McFarland, C. & Buehler, R. (1997). Negative affective states and the motivated retrieval of positive life events: The role of affect acknowledgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(1), 200-214.
McFarland, C. & Buehler, R. (1998). The impact of negative affect on autobiographical memory: The role of self-focused attention to moods. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(6), 1424-1440.
McIsaac, H. K., & Eich, E. (2004). Vantage point in traumatic memory. Psychological Science, 15(4), 248-253.
Moberly, N. J., Watkins, E. R. (2008). Ruminative self-focus and negative affect: An experience sampling study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117(2), 314-323. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.117.2.314
Mori, M., & Tanno, Y. (2015). Mediating role of decentering in the association between self-reflection, self-rumination, and depressive symptoms. Psychology, 6, 613-621. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/psych.2015.65059
Niven, K., Sprigg C. A, Armitage1, C. J., and Satchwell, A. (2013). Ruminative thinking exacerbates the negative effects of workplace violence. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 86(1), 1-18.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1987). Sex difference in unipolar depression: Evidence and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 101(2), 259-282. 
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1991). Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100(4), 569-582.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2000). The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 504-511. doi:101037/10021-843X.109.3.504
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Davis, C. G. (1999). “Thanks for sharing that”: Ruminators and their social support networks. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 801-814.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Morrow, J. (1991). A prospective study of depression and post- traumatic stress symptoms following a natural disaster: The 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 115-121.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Parker, L. E., & Larson, J. (1994). Ruminative coping with depressed mood following loss. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 92–104.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(5), 400-424.
Papageorgiou, C. & Wells, A. (2001a). Metacognitive beliefs about rumination in recurrent major depression. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 8, 160-164. 
Papageorgiou, C. & Wells, A. (2001b). Positive beliefs about depressive rumination: Development and preliminary validation of a self-report scale. Behavior Therapy, 32, 13-26.
Papageorgiou, C. & Wells, A. (2004). Depressive rumination: Nature, theory, and treatment. Wily, UK: West Sussex.
Pennebaker, J. W., & Francis, M. E. (1996). Cognitive, emotion, and language processes in disclosure. Cognition and Emotion, 10(6), 601-626.
Pennebaker, J. W., Mayne, T. J., Francis, M. E. (1997). Linguistic predictors of adaptive bereavement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(4), 863-871.
Pennebaker, J. W., Mehl, M. R., & Niederhoffer, K. G. (2003). Psychological aspects of natural language use: Our words, our selves. Annual Reviews, 54, 547-577. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145041
Petitmengin, C. (2006). Describing one’s subjective experience in the second person: An interview method for the science of consciousness. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences, 5, 229-269.
Pyszczynski, T., & Greenberg, J. (1987). Self-regulatory preservation and the depressive self-focusing style: A self-awareness theory of reactive depression. Psychological Bulletin, 102(1), 122-138.
Pyszczynski, T., Holt, K., & Greenberg, J. (1987). Depression, self-focused attention, and expectancies for positive and negative future life events for self and others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 994-1001.
Pyszczynski, T., Hamilton, J. H., Herring, F., & Greenberg, J. (1989). Depression, self-focused attention, and the negative memory bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 351-357.
Roberts, J. E., Gilboa, E., Gotlib, I. H. (1998). Ruminative response style and vulnerability to episodes of dysphoria: Gender, neuroticism, and episode duration. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 22(4), 401-423.
Roelofs, J., Papageorgiou, C., Gerber, R. D., Huibers, M. H., Peeters, F, & Arntz, A. (2007). On the links between self-discrepancies, rumination, metacognitions, and symptoms of depression in undergraduates. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 1295-1305.
ruminate. (2016). In Oxford Living Dictionaries. Retrieved August 5, 2016, from https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/ruminate.
Segerstrom, S.C., Stanton, A. L., Alden, L. E., & Shortridge, B. E. (2003). A multidimensional structure for repetitive thought: What’s on your mind, and how, and how much? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(5), 909-921.
Seih, Y., Chung, C. K., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2011). Experimental manipulations of perspective taking and perspective switching in expressive writing. Cognition and Emotion, 25(5), 926-938.
Siegle, G. J., Moore, P. M., & Thase, M. E. (2004). Rumination: One construct, many features in healthy individuals, depressed individuals, and individuals with Lupus. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28(5), 645-668.
Sloan, D. M., Marx, B. P., Epstein, E. M., Dobbs, J. L. (2008). Expressive writing buffers against maladaptive rumination. Emotion, 8(2), 302-306.  
Smith, J. M., Alloy, L. B. (2009). A roadmap to rumination: A review of the definition, assessment and conceptualization of this multifaceted construct. Clinical Psychology Review, 29, 116-128.
Spasojevic´, J., Alloy, L. B. (2001). Rumination as a common mechanism relating depressive risk factors to depression. Emotion, 1(1), 25-37.
Takano, K., Sakamoto, S., & Tanno, Y. (2013). Ruminative self-focus in daily life: Associations with daily activities and depressive symptoms. Emotion, 13(4), 657-667.
Tanner, A., Voon, D., Hasking, P., & Martin, G. (2013). Underlying structure of ruminative thinking: Factor analysis of the ruminative thought style questionnaire. Cognitive Therapy Research, 37, 633-646.
Teasdale, J. D. (1999). Emotional processing, three modes of mind and the prevention of relapse in depression. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 53-77.
Teasdale, J. D., Segal, Z. V., Williams, J. M. G., Ridgeway, V. A., Soulsby, J. M., & Lau, M. A. (2000). Prevention of relapse/recurrence in major depression by mindfulness-based cognitive therapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(4), 615-623. doi: 10.1037//0022-006X.68.4.615.
Trapnell, P. D., Campbell, J. D. (1999). Private self-consciousness and the five-factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(2), 284-304.
Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27(3), 247-259.
Verhaeghen,P., Joormann, J., & Aikman, S. N. (2014). Creativity, mood, and the examined life: Self-reflective rumination boosts creativity, brooding breeds dysphoria. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 8(2), 211-218.
Wallace-Hadrill, S. M.A. & Kamboj, S. K. (2016). The impact of perspective change as a cognitive reappraisal strategy on affect: A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1-14.
Watkins, E. (2004). Adaptive and maladaptive ruminative self-focus during emotional processing. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 1037-1052.
Watkins, E., & Teasdale, J. D. (2004). Adaptive and maladaptive self-focus in depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 82, 1-8.
Wells, A. & Mathews, G. (1994). Attention and Emotion: A Clinical Perspective. Hove, UK: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Wells, A. & Mathews, G. (1996). Modeling cognition in emotional disorder: The S-REF model. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34, 881-888.
Wenzlaff, R. M. & Luxton, D. D. (2003). The role of thought suppression in depressive rumination. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27(3), 293-308. doi:10.1023/A:1023966400540
Whitmer, A., & Gotlib, I. H. (2011). Brooding and reflection reconsidered: A factor analytic examination of rumination in currently depressed, formerly depressed and never depressed. Cognitive Therapy Research, 35, 99-107. doi:10.1007/s10608-011-9361-3
Williams, J. M. G. (2010). Mindfulness and psychological process. Emotion, 10(1), 1-7.