美國自由主義之本質乃是紮根於十八世紀啟蒙運動之政治思想體系，其於傳統上信奉個人自由、機會平等、自由市場經濟、擴張定義的財產權、自由民主之資本主義以及有限政府。唯自十九世紀末起，在經歷了一重新定義過程之後，傳統之美國自由主義漸漸為其「現代」版本所取代。自二十世紀三〇年代之羅斯福新政時期起，此一現代版本之美國自由主義，便開始強調藉由政府權威性手段，以達到更公平之經濟分配和社會福利措施。此後，美國即踏上了與個人自由漸行漸遠，並向中央集權論觀念傾斜之路。除此之外，此一最初矢志保護個人自由，以作為唯一政府目的之政治思想，被改造成視政府為所謂應得權利和其他公共服務之「供應者」。因此，此一經重新定義之現代自由主義在美國政治傳統中，明顯地導致了個人自由的侵蝕，向社會主義輕微靠攏，無可避免的政府機關破產，遭人非議的福利措施，並因其放棄了其傳統的哲學基礎，而遭致眾多批評。

The essence of liberalism in the United States of America, which took root in the 18th century Enlightenment political ideologies and traditionally espoused individual liberty, equality of opportunity, a free market economy, an expansive definition of property rights, liberal democratic capitalism, and limited government, has undergone a redefining process since the late nineteenth century and been replaced by a "modern" version, which emphasizes more equitable economic distribution by means of authoritative  measures and social welfare since the 1930's New Deal era. Thereafter, America embarked upon a journey sliding away from individual liberty and toward the embrace of various conceptions of statism. Moreover, a political ideology that originally claimed protection of individual liberty as the sole purpose of government, was transformed into one that perceives government as a provider of so-called entitlement rights and other services. Consequently, this redefined liberalism in the American political tradition has brought about an indisputable erosion of various individual liberties, subtle approximation to socialism, intransigent bankruptcy, disputed welfare programs, and become an obloquy to many as it surrendered its traditional philosophical foundations.

PREFACE.............................................................................................................................v
Introduction.......................................................................................................................1
      The Logomachy...........................................................................................................1
      The American Political Tradition.............................................................................9
      Liberalism or Liberalisms?......................................................................................15
      The Components of Liberalism.............................................................................20
           1. Liberty................................................................................................................21
           2. Equality..............................................................................................................22
           3. Private Property Rights..................................................................................24
           4. Free-Market System	........................................................................................27
           5. The Role of Government................................................................................29
Chapter One  The Essence of Liberty.........................................................................33
      A. Negative Liberty and Positive Liberty.............................................................36
               The Classical and Contemporary Views on Two Liberties.......................38
               Negative Liberty: Freedom from What?......................................................42
               Positive Liberty: Freedom to do What?.......................................................44
      B. The Tension between the Two Liberties.........................................................46
      Summary....................................................................................................................50
Chapter Two  The Myth about Equality.....................................................................53
      A. The Significance of Equality...............................................................................55
      B. Causes of Inequality.............................................................................................61
      C. Equality for Whom?..............................................................................................63
      D. Equality of What?..................................................................................................67
               Equality before the Law...................................................................................70
               Equality of Opportunity...................................................................................71
               Equality of Outcome.........................................................................................76
      Summary.....................................................................................................................79
Chapter Three   Liberty and Equality: Complementary or Competitive?............83
       A. Liberty and Equality as the Incompatible Pair...............................................84
                Plato....................................................................................................................84
                Aristotle..............................................................................................................85
      B. Liberty and Equality as Complements.............................................................86
               Thomas Hobbes	................................................................................................87
               John Locke..........................................................................................................88
               Jean-Jacques Rousseau...................................................................................89
      C. Liberty and Equality as Competitors................................................................91
               Baron de Montesquieu....................................................................................93
               Alexis de Tocqueville.......................................................................................94
      D. The American Manifestation: Quest for Equality?........................................97
               The Revolution and the Constitution..........................................................99
               Slavery and the Abolition Movement..................................................... .106
               The Civil Rights Movement.........................................................................111
      Summary.................................................................................................................113
Chapter Four   The Conceptions of Private Property...........................................117
      A. Property as a Means or an End?.....................................................................120
               Property as a Means to Moral Life and the Common Good.................121
               Property Rights as Human Rights..............................................................125
      B. Institutions of Private Property Rights.........................................................134
               Property Rights and the Establishment of Government......................135
               Property Rights and Judiciary Protection................................................140
               Property Rights and the Freedom of Contract.......................................143
      Summary.................................................................................................................145
Chapter Five   Freedom and the Free Market.......................................................149
      A. The Arrangements of the Marketplace........................................................151
               The Marketplace and the Process of Exchange......................................153
               The Marketplace and Capitalism	...............................................................156
               The Marketplace and Competition............................................................158
               The Marketplace and Public Good.............................................................162
               The Marketplace and Government............................................................164
      B. The Evolution of American Economic Thought..........................................168
               The Colonial Era..............................................................................................168
               The Formative Years......................................................................................169
               From the 1820s to the 1890s.......................................................................172
               The Twentieth Century..................................................................................174
               The New Deal and the Aftermath................................................................175
      Summary...................................................................................................................178
Chapter Six  The Role of Government: Protector or Provider?............................183
      A. Philosophical Justification of Government under Liberal Premises........187
               Government in the Theory of Social Contract...........................................188
               The Common Good and Government.........................................................193
      B. The Role of the Government.............................................................................197
               Government as a Protector............................................................................199
               Government as a Provider..............................................................................203
      C. The Transforming Ideas on the Proper Role of the U.S. Government.......207
               The Genesis........................................................................................................207
               The Founding Era..............................................................................................209
               The Populist Movement..................................................................................212
               The Progressive Era..........................................................................................216
               Contemporary Ideas........................................................................................224
      Summary....................................................................................................................225
Conclusion.......................................................................................................................229
      The Erosion of Individual Liberties.......................................................................232
      The Ill-fated Welfare State......................................................................................235
      Socialism or Liberalism?..........................................................................................238
INDEX................................................................................................................................243
BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................................249

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Gosepath, Stefan, “Equality,” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2009 Edition), Edward N. Zalta, ed.. Accessed on September 2, 2010. URL: <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2009/entries/equality/>.
Higgs, Robert, “Government Growth,” The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics, 2008. Library of Economics and Liberty. Retrieved March 17, 2010. URL: <http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/GovernmentGrowth.html>.
Johnson, Robert, “Kant's Moral Philosophy,” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2010 Edition), Edward N. Zalta, ed.. Accessed on November 2, 2010. URL: <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2010/entries/kant-moral>.
Kelly, Alfred H., “Constitution of the United States,” Gale Encyclopedia of US History on Answers.com. Accessed on October 12, 2010. URL: <http://www.answers.com/topic/united-states-constitution>.
Lovett, Frank, “Republicanism,” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2010 Edition), Edward N. Zalta, ed.. Accessed on July 14, 2010. URL=<http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2010/entries/republicanism/>.
Miller, Seumas, “Social Institutions,” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta, ed.. Accessed on January 15, 2011. URL: <URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2011/entries/social-institutions/>.
Shogimen, Takisha, “Liberty,” New Dictionary of the History of Ideas, 2005. Retrieved December 05, 2010. Available at: <http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3424300422.html>.
Tyler, Colin, “Thomas Hill Green,” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2009 Edition), Edward N. Zalta, ed.. Accessed on January 12, 2011. URL: <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2009/entries/green/>.
Waldron, Jeremy, “Property and Ownership,” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2010 Edition), Edward N. Zalta, ed.. Accessed on January 4, 2011. URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2010/entries/property/>.
William, Uzgalis, “John Locke,” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2010 Edition), Edward N. Zalta, ed.. Accessed on July 25, 2010. URL: <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2010/entries/locke/>.
Williams, Garth, “Hobbes: Moral and Political Philosophy,” The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (IEP), published on May 21, 2003. Accessed on September 20, 2010. URL: <http://www.iep.utm.edu/hobmoral/#H3>.
“Equality,” Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of Law, Dictionary.com. Accessed on August 04, 2010,  URL: <http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/equality>.
“Equality of Opportunity vs Equality of Results,” Encyclopedia (online), Associatepublisher.com. Accessed on December 11, 2010. URL: <http://www. associatepublisher.com/e/e/eq/equality_of_opportunity_vs_equality_of_results.htm>.
“Equal opportunity,” Wikipedia. Accessed on August 2, 2010, URL: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equal_opportunity>.
“Government,” Dictionary.com. Accessed on Sep. 24, 2010. URL: <http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/government>.
“Jean-Jacques Rousseau,” Wikipedia, 2010. Retrieved on August 24, 2010, URL: <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&oldid =414119719>.
“Joseph Stiglitz,” Wikipedia, 2011. Accessed on April 2, 2011. URL: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz>.
“Liberalism,” Encyclopedia Britannica (online). Accessed on March 18, 2010. Available at: <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339173/liberalism>.
“Liberty,” Online Etymology Dictionary. Accessed on March 15, 2010. Available at: <http:// www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=liberty>.
“Liberty,” The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (online), Fourth Edition, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2007. Accessed on March 4, 2010. URL: <http://www.thefreedictionary.com/liberty>.
“List of Political Ideologies,” Wikipedia. Accessed on August 21, 2010. Available at <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_ideology.>
“Populist Movement,” Britannica Concise Encyclopedia, Answers.com. Accessed on March 21, 2011. URL: <http://www.answers.com/topic/populist-movement>.
“Property,” Wikipedia. Accessed on January 3, 2011. URL: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_rights>.
“Socialist Party of America,” Wikipedia. Accessed on April, 24, 2011. URL: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_America>.

Speeches:
Adams, John Quincy, “Oration at Plymouth,” delivered at Plymouth Massachusetts on December 22, 1802 in Commemoration of the Landing of the Pilgrims1802, The Daily Republican News (online), 2002. Retrieved on August 3, 2010. Available at: <http://www.dailyrepublican.com/plymouth-orate.html>.
Calhoun, John C., “Speech on the Reception of Abolition Petitions: Revised Report,” (February 6, 1837) in John C. Calhoun, Union and Liberty: The Political Philosophy of John C. Calhoun, Ross M. Lence, ed., Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund, 1992. Accessed on September 11, 2010. URL: <http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/683/107124>.
Clinton, William J., “Address Before a Joint Session of the Congress on the State of the Union,” January 24, 1995, John T. Woolley and Gerhard Peters, The American Presidency Project [online]. Santa Barbara, CA. Available at: <http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=51634>.
Constant, Benjamin, “The Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns,” a lecture to the Ath&eacute;n&eacute;e Royal of Paris in 1819, Earlymoderntexts.com. Accessed on February 21, 2011. Available at: <www.earlymoderntexts.com/pdf/constant.pdf>.
Hoover, Herbert,  Address at Madison Square Garden in New York City, October 31, 1932, in John T. Woolley and Gerhard Peters, The American Presidency Project, Santa Barbara, CA: University of California. Accessed June 5, 2010. URL: <http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=23317>.
Lincoln, Abraham, “Gettysburg Address,” Gettysburg, Pennsylvania on November 19, 1863, in The Avalon Project [online], Lillian Goldman Law Library, Yale Law School. Accessed on July 20, 2010. Available at: http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/gettyb.asp.
Pittman, R. Carter, “George Mason: The Architect of American Liberty,” address delivered at the fall meeting of the Georgia Society of the Sons of Colonial Wars, Savannah, Georgia, November 17, 1954, RCarterPittman.org (online). Accessed on March 25, 2010. URL: <http://rcarterpittman.org/essays/Mason/George_Mason-Architect_of_American_Liberty.html>.
Roosevelt, Franklin D.,  “Commonwealth Club Speech,” delivered September 23, 1932, TeachingAmericanHistory.org, San Francisco, CA. Available at: http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=447.
Roosevelt, Theodore, “Wise and Unwise Methods for Remedying Trust Evils,” from a speech at Fitchberg, Massachusetts, September 2, 1902, in William Griffith, ed., The Roosevelt Policy: Speeches, Letters and State Papers Relating to Corporate Wealth and Closely Allied Topics, reprint, Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing LLC, 2004, pp.
Stephens, Alexander H., “Cornerstone Speech,” delivered on March 21, 1861 at Savannah, Georgia, TeachingAmericanHistory.org. Accessed on September 11, 2010. URL: <http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=76>.
Webster, Noah, “An Oration on the Anniversary of the Declaration of Independence,” a speech delivered in New Havern, 1802, Lexrex.com. Accessed on Feburary 23, 2011. URL: <http://www.lexrex.com/enlightened/writings/webster_decl.htm>.

Supreme Court and other Court Opinions:
Barbier v. Connolly, 113 U. S. 27 (1885), U.S. Supreme Court, Justia.com, U.S. Supreme Court Center. Accessed on October 10, 2010. Available at:<http://supreme.justia.com/us/83/36/case.html>.
Brown, J. “Opinion of the Court,” Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896), Legal Information Institute, Law school, Cornell University. Accessed on January 21, 2011. URL: <http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0163_0537_ZO.html>.
Harlan, J. “Dissenting Opinion,” Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896), Legal Information Institute, Law school, Cornell University. Accessed on January 21, 2011. URL: <http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0163_0537_ZD.html>.
Justice Joseph Story, Concurring Opinion, Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 17 U.S. 518 (1819), Supreme Court of the United States, Legal Information Institute, Law School, Cornell University. Accessed on July 23, 2010. Available at:<http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/search/display.html?terms=Dartmouth%20College%20v.%20Woodward&url=/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0017_0518_ZC1.html>.
Matter of N.Y.S. Comm. V. Pelham Hall Apts., 10 Misc.2d 334 (1958), New York State Bar Association (online). Accessed on August 10, 2010. Available at: <http://www.loislaw.com/advsrny/doclink.htp?alias=NYMISC&cite=170+N.Y.S.2d+750>.
Slaughter House Cases, 16 Wall. 36 (1872), U.S. Supreme Court, Justia.com, U.S. Supreme Court Center. Accessed on October 10, 2010. Available at:<http://supreme.justia.com/us/113/27/case.html>.
Spectrum Sports v. McQuillan (1993), Supreme Court, Legal Information, Cornell University Law School. Accessed on May 24, 2011. URL: <http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/91-10.ZO.html>.
Syllabus, Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 17 U.S. 518 (1819), Supreme Court of the United States, Legal Information Institute, Law School, Cornell University. Accessed on July 23, 2010. Available at:<http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0017_0518_ZS.html>.
Taney, C. J., “Opinion of the Court,” Dred Scott v. Sandford, 60 US 393 (1857), Legal Information Institute, Law school, Cornell University. Accessed on January 21, 2011. URL: <http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0060_0393_ZO.html>.

Historical Documents:
Bradford, William, “The Mayflower Compact,” November 11, 1620, NationalCenter.org. Retrieved on June 20, 2010. Available at: http://www.nationalcenter.org/MayflowerCompact.html.
Jefferson, Thomas, “The Original Rough Draught” of the Declaration of Independence, American Treasures of the Library of Congress. Accessed on February 21, 2010. Available at: <http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/declara/ruffdrft.html>.
Marx, Karl, and Friedrich Engels, “The Communist Manifesto (1848),” Project Gutenberg (online), released on January 25, 2005. Retrieved on September 23, 2010. Available at: <http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/61>.
Roosevelt, Franklin D.,  “Message to Congress on Curbing Monopolies,” delivered on April 29, 1938, in John T. Woolley and Gerhard Peters, eds., The American Presidency Project, Santa Barbara, CA. Retrieved on August 10, 2010. Available at: <http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=15637>.
Roosevelt, Franklin D., “On Government and Capitalism,” transcript, Fireside Chat, September 30, 1934, Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Accessed on September 17, 2010. Available at: <http://millercenter.org/scripps/archive/speeches/detail/3303>.
“The Virginia Declaration of Rights,” Final Draft,12 June 1776, Gunston Hall website. Accessed on August 21, 2010, URL: <http://www.gunstonhall.org/georgemason/human_rights/vdr_final.html>.
“Virginia Bill of Rights,” June 12, 1776, Constitution Society, Constitution.org. Accessed on January 23, 2011. Available at: <http://www.constitution.org/bor/vir_bor.htm>.

Government Publications:
Gibson, Campbell, “Population of the 100 Largest Cities and Other Urban Places in the United States: 1790 To 1990,” U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved on July 2, 2010. Available at: <http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027/twps0027.html>.
Congressional Record, Vol. 150, Pt. 9, 108th Congress, 2nd Session, June 2, 2004 to June 16, 2004, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2009.
“America's Founding Fathers: Delegates to the constitutional Convention,” The U.S. National Archives. Accessed on August 25, 2010. Available at: <http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_founding_fathers.html>.
“Number in Poverty and Poverty Rate: 1959 to 2009,” U.S. Census Bureau, September 27, 2010. Accessed on April 26, 2011. URL: <http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty/data/incpovhlth/2009/pov09fig04.pdf>.
“Report of the United States Commission on Civil Rights,” United States Commission on Civil Rights, Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1959.
“United States Summary: 2000, Population and Housing Unit Counts,” U.S. Census Bureau, issued on April, 2004. Retrieved on July 2, 2010. Available at: <http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2000/phc3-us-pt1.pdf>.

Inaugural Addresses:
Carter, Jimmy, “Inaugural Address,” January 12, 1971, Jimmy Carter Library. Retrieved on March 26, 2011. Available at: <http://www.jimmycarterlibrary.gov/documents/inaugural_address.pdf>.
Jefferson, Thomas, First Inaugural Address in Washington, D.C., Wednesday, March 4, 1801, The Avalon Project (online), Lilian Goldman Law Library, Yale Law School. Accessed on August 5, 2010. Available at: <http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/jefinau1.asp>.
Kennedy, John F., “Inaugural Address,” January 20, 1961, John T. Woolley and Gerhard Peters, The American Presidency Project [online]. Santa Barbara, CA. Available at: <http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=8032>.

Letters:
“Adams to Jefferson,” July 13, 1813 in Lester J. Cappon, ed., The Adams-Jefferson Letter: The Complete Correspondence between Thomas Jefferson and Abigail and John Adams, Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press, 1988, pp.
Adams, John, "Letters to John Taylor, of Caroline, Virginia, in Reply to His Strictures on Some Parts of the Defence of the American Constitutions," in in John Adams, Charles Francis Adams, The Works of John Adams, Second President of the United States: with a Life of the Author,  Vol. 6, Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Co., 1856. Electronic version, The Online Library of Liberty. Accessed on November 23, 2010. URL: <http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/2104/159956>.
Jefferson, Thomas, “To Colonel Carrington,” May 27, 1788, in Thomas Jefferson, The Life and Selected Writings of Thomas Jefferson, Adrienne Koch and William Peden, eds., New York, NY: The Modern Library, Inc., 1944, p. 447.
“Thomas Jefferson to Isaac H. Tiffany,” April 4, 1819, text from Electronic Text Center, University of Virginia Library. Retrieved on August 9, 2010. Available at: http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/jefferson/quotations/jeffcont.htm. Polygraph copy available at Library of Congress, Thomas Jefferson Papers: http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/mtj.mtjbib023463.
“Thomas Jefferson to James Maury, 1812,” in The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, Memorial Edition, Andrew Adgate Lipscomb & Albert Ellery Bergh, eds., Vol. 13, issued under the auspices of the Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association of the United States, Washington, D.C., 1907.

Unpublished Papers:
Hill, John Lawrence, “Equality, Contingency and the Self: Resolving the Conflict between Equality and Individualism in Modern Legal Thought,” Working Paper Series, Social Science Research Network, posted on August 6, 2008. Retrieved on July 14, 2010. Available at SSRN: <http://ssrn.com/abstract=1208722>.
Lom, Petr, “Alexis de Tocqueville: the Psychologist of Equality,” EUI (European University Institute) Working Paper SPS No. 99/1, pp. . Retrieved on January 10, 2011. Available at: <http://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/301/sps99_1.pdf?sequence=1>.
Waldron, Jeremy, “Basic Equality,” Theory Working Papers, New York University Public Law and Legal, NELLCO Legal Scholarship Repository, 2008. Retrieved on September 5, 2010. Available at: <http://lsr.nellco.org/nyu_plltwp/107>.

Press Release:
“Statement by Secretary Henry M. Paulson, Jr. on Treasury and Federal Housing Finance Agency Action to Protect Financial Markets and Taxpayers,” Press releases, U.S. Department of the Treasury, September 7, 2008. Accessed on April 26, 2011. URL:<http://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/hp1128.aspx>.