本文的研究目的是闡述在複雜的衝突環境下，軍隊的思考活動的機制。本文係採取科際整合之研究，透過不同學科的觀點，包括社會心理學(例如，自我決定理論)，文化(例如，跨文化訓練方法)，以及戰略研究等學科，以洞察此機制的內涵。本文核心之處可分為四部分：
一、	呈現如何透過關於最具共同的和所欲的戰士範型的社會化與人格解體，以型塑軍人心態；此外，本文亦會探討負面的表現，例如民族優越感、偏見、內團體偏誤，以及在兵力部署期間文化衝擊的經歷。
二、	聚焦以越戰與伊拉克、阿富汗的反叛亂作戰的案例研究，進行軍人心態如何在衝突環境運作的批判性分析。
三、	探討負面的心態如何透過自我改善，例如藉由社會化過程與跨文化訓練等方式，而獲得緩解。
四、	本文特別關注地探討一向被忽視的議題─在衝突環境中，恐懼的作用。
五、	分析社會科學研究者的角色、能發揮如何減少戰爭恐懼，以及使軍人的心態能適應文化疏離的作戰地主國。
最後，本文認為，透過量化的科際整合，以及整體性的研究，可以減緩本研究發現的數項不足之處。同時，本文亦提出可能的解決方案與模式。

Abstract:

The purpose of the Ph.D. dissertation is to elaborate on the working mechanisms behind the military thinking about complex conflict environments. The thesis is an interdisciplinary research endeavor that takes the insights from various disciplines, including social psychology (e.g. Self-Determination Theory), cultural (Intercultural Training methods), and strategic studies. Several core segments can be distinguished: first, it is presented how the military mindset is established through socialization and depersonalization toward most common and desired warrior prototype; negative outcomes of this process are discussed, for e.g. ethnocentrism, prejudice, in-group bias, and experience of culture shock during deployments; second part focus on a critical analysis of the military mindset functioning in conflict environments based on case studies of Vietnam War and counterinsurgency operations in Iraq and Afghanistan; third, how the negative aspects of the mindset can be mitigated through self-improvements, for instance, changing the socialization process toward higher self-complexity and intercultural training; fourth, the neglected topic of  emotions is discussed with particular attention on the role of fear in conflict environments; fifth; what is the role of social scientists and what they can do to reduce the horrors of wars and allow the military mindset to adapt to culturally distant host societies. Conclusion: the dissertation identified several gaps that could be mitigated through quantitative interdisciplinary and holistic research; potential solutions and models are proposed.

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements	ii
Abstract	vi
List of Figures	viii
List of Tables	x
List of Abbreviations	xi
	
Chapter 1
1.1. Introduction 1
1.1.1. A Brief Retrospect: Culture in Shadows of Technology 4
1.1.2. The Cultural Influx and Its Repercussions 9
1.2. Literature Review
1.2.1. The Concept of Ways of War 13
1.2.2. The Concept of Strategic Culture 20
1.2.3. The Concept of Culture on Battlefield 26
1.3. Theoretical Framework and Methodology
1.3.1. Theoretical Framework 29
1.3.2. Research Methodology 37
1.4. Chapter’s Outline and Other Issues
1.4.1. Perplexing Culture(s) – An Issue of Definition 44
1.4.2. Chapter’s Outline 48

Chapter 2
2.1. Shaping the Military Mindset 51
2.2. Toward In-Group Cohesion 52
2.3. Intergroup Conflict: From In-Group Cohesion to Out-Group Dehumanization 65
2.4. A Note on Political Mindset 76

Chapter 3
3.1. Applications and Outcomes of the Military Mindset 81
3.1.1. A Road to Iraq and Afghanistan: Vietnam War 85
3.1.2. The Mindset in Denial: Revolution in Military Affairs 102
3.2. Mindset in Crisis: Counterinsurgency in Iraq and Afghanistan 115
3.2.1. The Theory of Winning the Hearts and Minds 117
3.2.2. Defending the Mindset: Trauma, Self-Deception and Dehumanization in Iraq 124
3.2.3. The Collapse of the Myth in Afghanistan: From RMA through Displacement and Projection to RMA 142
3.2.4. Conclusion: The Myth of Counterinsurgency? 159

Chapter 4
4. Knowledge, Awareness, Sensitivity: Normative Perspective 163
4.1. Knowledge of Self and Knowledge of Others
4.1.1. Knowledge of Self 165
4.1.1.1. The Complexity of Self 175
4.1.1.2. The Role of Self-Regulation 179
4.1.2. Knowledge of Others 189
4.1.2.1. Individualism vs. Collectivism 193
4.1.2.2. Small vs. Large Power Distance 198
4.1.2.3. Low-context vs. high context Cultures 200
4.1.2.4. Time Dimension 201
4.1.2.5. Masculinity vs.  Femininity 205
4.1.3. Some Conclusions on Cultural Knowledge Building Block 209
4.2. Cultural Awareness
4.2.1. The Role of Distance and Shock 214
4.2.2. Mortality Salience in Conflict Environments 224
4.2.3. Developing Intercultural-Intergroup Complex Conflict Environment 
          Contact Model 231
4.3. Cultural Sensitivity 249
4.3.1. Emotions in Perception of Culture 250
4.3.2. Working Mechanism Behind Individual-level Emotions 257
4.3.3. Groups Emotions in Relation to Military Small Groups 266
4.3.4. Emotion Regulation in Conflict Environments 277
4.3.5. The Role of Fear 280

Chapter 5
5. The Role of Social Scientists in Changing Military Mindset 286
5.1. The Ghosts of the Past: The National Cultures and Behavioralists 289
5.2. The Human Terrain System 296
5.3. Ethical dilemmas of Human Terrain System 303
5.4. Social Scientists and the Development of Intercultural Competencies 308

6. General Conclusions
Studying War System 325
Bibliography 332
Index 408

 
List of Figures

Figure 1.1: State-centric, macro-level cultural theories in Strategic Studies 30
Figure 1.2: Cultural Knowledge of “self” and “other” and its constraints 31
Figure 1.3: Normative perspective of intercultural-intergroup contact in conflict 
       environments 33
Figure 1.4: Actual perspective of intercultural-intergroup contact in conflict environments 34
Figure 1.5: Worst case scenario of intercultural-intergroup contact in conflict environment 35
Figure 1.6: Desirable scenario of intercultural-intergroup contact in conflict environments 36
Figure 1.7: Multidisciplinarity: Insights into a common problem from two disciplines 
       (A+B) are consulted but not integrated 38
Figure 1.8: War System 39
Figure 1.9: Supradisciplinary Universe 43
Figure 3.1: Inter-Agency Counterinsurgency Framework 120
Figure 3.2: The effects of proper application of Line of Operations in counterinsurgency 121
Figure 3.3: The number of the U.S. military and Iraqi civilians killed between 2003-2015 131
Figure 3.4: U.S. troops level in Iraq and Afghanistan, 2002-2016 146
Figure 3.5: The number of the U.S. military and Afghan civilians killed between 2001-
       2015 152
Figure 3.6: Territory controlled by Taliban from 2003 to 2006 155
Figure 4.1: Layers of cultural knowledge 192
Figure 4.2: Conflict styles 195
Figure 4.3: High context vs. Low context cultures 202
Figure 4.4: Cultural time dimensions 204
Figure 4.5: Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity 210
Figure 4.6: Cultural distance and cultural change 219
Figure 4.7: The cognitive architecture of terror management dual defense 226
Figure 4.8: The impact of Transition Shock and Mortality Salience during the intercultural 
       contact 232
Figure 4.9: Reformulated contact theory 240
Figure 4.10: Intercultural-Intergroup Complex Conflict Environment Contact Model 246
Figure 4.11: The modal model of emotion 258
Figure 4.12: The modal model of group-based emotions 266
Figure 4.13: The process model of group-based emotion regulation 275
Figure 5.1: A classification scheme for intercultural training techniques 312
Figure 5.2: Gemstone model 320
 
List of Tables

Table 4.1: Types of motivation according to Self-Determination Theory 173
Table 4.2: The traits of warrior and peacekeeper mindsets 181
Table 4.3: Individualistic cultures vs. Collectivistic cultures 197
Table 4.4: Small power distance vs. Large power distance cultures 199
Table 4.5: Monochronic vs. Polychronic cultures 203
Table 4.6: Masculinity vs. Femininity cultures 206
Table 4.7: Various conceptualizations of cultural dimensions 207
Table 4.8: List of intercultural skills 242
Table 4.9: Roseman’s model of discrete emotional responses in the emotion system 262
Table 5.1: Grants funded by the CIA 293
Table 5.2: Eighteen themes of the culture-general assimilator 319
Table 5.3: Intercultural Assessment Tools 321

Photo 1: Afghan warlords and territory they control 145

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Campos, Belinda, Michelle N. Shiota, Dacher Keltner, Gian C. Gonzaga, Jennifer L. Goetz. “What is shared, what is different? Core relational themes and expressive display of eight positive emotions.” Cognition and Emotion, Vol. 21, No. 1 (2013): 37-52.
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Casey-Campbell, Milly, and Martin L. Martens. “Sticking it all together: A critical assessment of the group cohesion – performance literature.” International Journal of Management Reviews, Vol. 11, Issue 2 (2009): 223-246.
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Cernak, Stella. “Sexual Assault and Rape in Military: The Invisible Victims of International Gender Crimes at the Front Lines.” Michigan Journal of Gender and Law, Vol. 22, Issue 1 (2015): 207-241. 
Cheng, Chi-Ying, Fiona Lee, and Veronica Benet-Martinez. “Assimilation and Contrast Effects in Cultural Frame Switching: Bicultural Identity Integration and Valence of Cultural Cues.” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, Vol. 37, No. 6 (2006): 742-760.
Cheung-Blunden, Violet, and Bill Bluden. “The Emotional Construal of War: Anger, Fear, and Other Negative Emotions.” Peace and Conflict, Vol. 14 (2008): 123-149.
Chung, Yong-Wook. "Leaflets, and the Nature of the Korean War as Psychological Warfare." The Review of Korean Studies, Vol. 17, no. 3 (2004): 91-116.
Cicero, Lavinia, Antonio Pierro, & Daan Van Knippenberg. “Leadership and Uncertainty: How Role Ambiguity Affects the Relationship between Leader Group Prototypicality and Leadership Effectiveness.” British Journal of Management, Vol. 21, Issue 2 (2010): 411-421.
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Cohen-Chen, Smadar, Eran Halperin, Richard J. Crisp, and James J. Gorss. “Hope in the Middle East. Malleability Beliefs, Hope, and the Willingness to Compromise for Peace.” Social Psychology and Personality Science, Vol. 5, No. 1 (2013): 67-75.
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Governmental and Non-Governmental Reports
Abbe, Allison, Lisa M. V. Gulick, and Jeffrey L. Herman. Cross-Cultural Competence in Army Leaders: A Conceptual and Empirical Foundation. Arlington: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, Army Project No. 665803D730, October 2007.
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Amnesty International. “Getting Away With Murder? The Impunity of International Forces in Afghanistan.” Amnesty International Publications, 2009, available at: https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/44000/asa110012009en.pdf. 
Amnesty International. “Left in the dark: Failures of accountability for civilian casualties caused by international military operations in Afghanistan.” Amnesty International Publications August 11, 2014, available at: https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/ASA11/006/2014/en/. 
Amnesty International. “New Order, Same Abuses: Unlawful Detentions and Torture in Iraq.” Amnesty International Publications, 2010, available at: http://www.amnestyusa.org/research/reports/new-order-same-abuses-unlawful-detentions-and-torture-in-iraq.
Anh, Nguyen Thi Tue, Luu Minh Duc, and Trinh Duc Chieu. “The Evolution of Vietnamese Industry.” Working Paper No. 19, The Brookings Institution, 2014, available at: https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/L2C_WP19_Nguyen-Luu-and-Trinh-1.pdf.
Asfura-Heim, Patricio. “’No Security Without Us:’ Tribes and Tribalism in Al Anbar Province, Iraq.” CNA Analysis & Solutions, June 2014.
Asher, Thomas. “Making Sense of Minerva Controversy and the NSCC.” Social Science Research Council, 2008, available at: http://essays.ssrc.org/minerva/home/asher-2/.
Badkhen, Anna. “Afghanistan: PTSDland.” Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting, August 13, 2012, available at: http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/afghanistan-post-traumatic-stress-disorder-mental-health-care-genocide-violence.
Baiocchi, Dave. Measuring Army Deployments to Iraq and Afghanistan. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 2013.
Baram, Amatzia. “Who are the Insurgents?” Special Report 134, United State Institute of Peace, April 2005, available at: http://www.usip.org/publications/who-are-the-insurgents-sunni-arab-rebels-in-iraq.
Belasco, Amy. “The Cost of Iraq, Afghanistan, and Other Global War on Terror Operations Since 9/11.” Congressional Research Service, RL33110, December 8, 2014.
Bertelsmann Stiftung. BTI 2016 — Iraq Country Report. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Stiftung, 2016.
Buffaloe, David L. “Defining Asymmetric Warfare.” The Land Warfare Papers No. 58, The Institute of Land Warfare, 2006.
Bunzel, Cole. “From Paper State to Caliphate: The Ideology of the Islamic State.” Analysis Paper No. 19, The Brookings Project on U.S. Relations with the Islamic World, March 2015.
Burghardt, Tom. “The WikiLeaks Release: U.S. Complicity and Cover-Up of Iraq Torture Exposed.” Center for Research and Globalization, October 25, 2010, available at: http://www.globalresearch.ca/the-wikileaks-release-u-s-complicity-and-cover-up-of-iraq-torture-exposed/21604.
Center for Creative Leadership. “Leader Effectiveness and Culture: The GLOBE Study.” Access online June 5, 2016, available at: http://www.ccl.org/leadership/pdf/assessments/globestudy.pdf
Clark, Kate. “The ‘Other Guantanamo’ 12: Bagram closes, CIA torture revealed, US to be held to account?” Afghanistan Analyst Network, December 12, 2014, available at: https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/the-other-guantanamo-11-bagram-closes-cia-torture-revealed-us-to-be-held-to-account/.
Collins, Joseph J. (ed.) “American Military Culture in the Twenty-First Century.” CSIS International Security Program, The Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2000.
Condra, Luke N., Joseph H. Felter, Radha K. Iyengar, and Jacob N. Shapiro. “The Effect of Civilian Casualties in Afghanistan and Iraq.” NBER Working Paper No. 16152, 2010.
Cordesman, Anthony H. “21st Century Conflict: From ‘Revolution in Military Affairs’ (RMA) to ‘Revolution in Civil-Military Affairs’ (RCMA).” Center for Strategic & International Studies, July 2, 2015, available at: https://www.csis.org/analysis/21st-century-conflict-%E2%80%9Crevolution-military-affairs%E2%80%9D-rma-%E2%80%9Crevolution-civil-military-affairs%E2%80%9D.
Cordesman, Anthony H. The Lesson of the Iraq War: Main Report. Washington D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, July 21, 2003, available at: https://www.csis.org/analysis/lessons-iraq-war-main-report.
Crawford, Neta C. Civilian Death and Injury in the Iraq War, 2003-2013. Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University, http://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/costs/human/civilians/iraqi.
Czelusta, Mark G. “Business as Usual: An Assessment of Donald Rumsfeld’s Transformation Vision and Transformation’s Prospects for the Future.” The Marshall Center Occasional Papers Series, No. 18, June 2008.
Dale, Catherine. “Operation Iraqi Freedom: Strategies, Approaches, Results, and Issues for Congress.” Congressional Research Service, RL34387, April 2, 2009.
Davidson, Janie. “Principles of Modern American Counterinsurgency: Evolution and Debate.” Counterinsurgency and Pakistan Paper Series, Brookings Institute, June 8, 2008, available at: https://www.brookings.edu/research/principles-of-modern-american-counterinsurgency-evolution-and-debate/.
Echevarria II, Antulio J. “Fourth-Generation War and Other Myths.” Strategic Studies Institute, November 2005.
Eisenstadt, Michael, and Jeffrey White. “Assessing Iraq’s Sunni Arab Insurgency.” Policy Focus #50, The Washington Institute for Near east Policy, December 2005.
Evans, Michael. “The Tyranny of Dissonance: Australia’s Strategic Culture and Way of War 1901-2005.” Land Warfare Studies Center Study Papers, No. 306 (February 2005).
Fluehr-Lobban, Carolyn. “Challenges of Providing Anthropological Expertise: On the conflict in Sudan.” American Anthropological Association, October 26, 2004, available at: http://www.americananthro.org/press/an/infocus/darfur/fluehr-lobban.htm. 
Guimbert, Stephane. “Structure and Performance of Afghan Economy.” South Asia Region PREM working paper series, No. SASPR-1. Washington D.C.: World Bank, 2004.
Haynes, William. “Enemy Combatants.” Council on Foreign Relations, December 12, 2002, available at: http://www.cfr.org/international-law/enemy-combatants/p5312.
Heidelberg Institute for International Conflict Research, Conflict Barometer 2013, available at: https://hiik.de/de/downloads/data/downloads_2013/ConflictBarometer2013.pdf.
Holmes, Kim R. “Putin’s Asymmetrical War on the West.” Foreign Policy, May 5, 2014, available at: http://foreignpolicy.com/2014/05/05/putins-asymmetrical-war-on-the-west/.
Human Rights Watch, World Report 2008. New York: Human Rights Watch, 2008, available at: https://www.hrw.org/legacy/wr2k8/pdfs/wr2k8_web.pdf 
Human Rights Watch. “’No Blood, No Foul:’ Soldiers’ Accounts of Detainee Abuse in Iraq.” Volume 18, No. 3, July 2006, available at:  https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/us0706web.pdf. 
Human Rights Watch. “’Today We Shall All Die.’ Afghanistan’s Strongmen and the Legacy of Impunity.” March 2015, available at: https://www.hrw.org/report/2015/03/03/today-we-shall-all-die/afghanistans-strongmen-and-legacy-impunity.
International Crisis Group. “Countering Afghanistan’s Insurgency: No Quick Fixes.” Asia Report No. 123, November 2, 2006.
Iraq Body Count. https://www.iraqbodycount.org/. Access online: December 19, 2016.
Iraq Coalition Causality Count.  http://www.icasualties.org/Iraq/Index.aspx. Access online: December 19, 2016.
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Videos
“Mahmudiyah massacre - BBC News.” YouTube video, 1:58, available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GGS5FwPCxt4. 
“The Torture Trail: What did General Petraeus's special advisor, James Steele, know?” YouTube video, 7:05, based on The Guardian, access online: November 29, 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w4tA-5auehU.
 Brookings Institute, Stability and Security in Afghanistan Conference, January 4, 2016, available at: https://www.c-span.org/video/?402677-1/discussion-stability-security-afghanistan.
Doran, Jamie. “Afghan Massacre: The Convoy of Death.” Atlantic Celtic Films, December 18, 2002, available at: https://archive.org/details/afghan-massacre-the-convoy-of-death.