本文探討馬格里布回教移民在法國的融合過程。首先，經濟分配不公常引發暴動(例如2005年巴黎市郊暴動)，產生融合難題，但非自殺式攻擊。近兩年來，回教移民後裔所發動接二連三恐怖攻擊，研究中心轉向經濟背後更深層因素，因為此等行為觸及意識形態以及屬靈精神領域。這些恐怖份子皆與伊斯蘭國極端組職有聯繫。故法國共和人士面臨此等威脅時，提出大革命之最大遺產政教分離，亦可稱為«國家去宗教化(laïcité)»，來作為精神武裝，欲以此剔除法國社會中的宗教性(回教)，保有民主本色(自由、平等、兄弟情誼)。弔詭的是，國家去宗教化卻內含類宗教性之神聖價值:«共和»。此類宗教性卻近似天主教，兩世紀以來兩者之間有牽扯不清的關係:一則引為精神導師、二則轉而視之為仇寇。由此，法國共和主義在爭論不休的回教頭巾問題中，所受到不只是外在的服裝衣著的挑戰，和激進回教徒(法國公民)藉此擴散極端思維，更在於在既有的法國共和屬靈領域之外，另尋他徑，不但破壞法國之統一完整性，使得法國共和主義失去原先世俗與神聖兩端的專斷力量。此等國家危機激化法蘭西國族認同意識，不僅強化自我防衛機制，而且強烈要求回教移民認同法國共和主義。回教移民的年輕世代卻因此倍受排擠，不見容於法國社會，竟皈依回教乞求歸屬感。«國家去宗教化»適得其反。融合，終難有成。

Muslim integration has long been the major concern in the French society. The Paris attacks in January and November of 2015 only made the concern even more worrying that the integration problem may have led to radicalization of young descendants of Muslim immigrants. The attacks and possibly more in the future only not aggravate Islamophobia but also alert the populists against immigration to demand a stricter border control to protect France from any future attack from outside. The populist movement may feed the radicalization and vice versa, both of which antagonize the crisis of national identity that French people seek to rebuild. 
However, on the one hand, the crisis of national identity has less to with immigrants than the globalized market economy that cuts through national borders and makes state less capable of allocating and redistributing resources to its citizens. The credibility of state is thus at stake. On the other hand, Muslims are not as reluctant to integrate as they are portrayed to be. Most of them are French and their doubt of Frenchness is only provoked by media or politicians. It seems that the more the French society works to integrate Muslims, the less it succeeds because it III 

presupposes the necessity to be engaged in such a social engineering; that is, only through laïcité, the core of republican value, can the goal of living together (vivre-ensemble) allegedly make possible among all immigrants, minorities, and the French nationals. 
Presumably, the more emphasis on laïcité, the lesser need for Muslims to proselytize Islam by wearing scarves in the public and praying on the city streets. Laïcité has its sacred value, which brings itself close to civil religion. Laïcité may therefore lose its appeal for Muslims to restrain themselves from self-expression of their religion in public. The biggest challenge that Muslims may pose is not really the terrorist attack on civilians, but the spirituality that Islam offers is not tamed but in competition with laïcité. Laïcité will not serve to integrate Maghreb Muslim immigrants.

1 Chapter One: Introduction to the Significance on   Maghreb Immigrant Problems-------------------------------1
1.1 Research Motive--------------------------------------2
1.2 Methodological Issues--------------------------------8
1.3 Notes on Historiography-----------------------------11
1.4 Research Scope and Limits---------------------------18
1.5 Research Framework----------------------------------20
2 Chapter Two: History and Social Conditions of Maghreb Immigrants in France and Responses from the Public and Major Political Parties---------------------------------25
2.1 Historical Background and Immigration Polices Since WWII----------------------------------------------------26
2.1.1 From 1945 to 1975: policies of Laissez-Faire------26
2.1.2 From 1975 to 2006: Polices of Control-------------31
2.1.3 “The Rise of Islam” and Integration Problem-------38
2.2 Reactions to Immigration from Major Political Parties --------------------------------------------------------42
2.2.1 The Position of National Front--------------------42
2.2.2 The Position of the Republicans-------------------47
2.2.3 The Socialist Party-------------------------------53
2.2.4 The Latest Statistics Concerning the Socialist Party’s Immigration Policy------------------------------60
2.3 Opinion Poll on Immigration and Maghreb Immigrants--64
2.3.1 Muslim Immigrants and Integration-----------------65
2.3.2 Muslim Immigrants and Religions-------------------73
2.4 Social Factors: Demography, Unemployment, and Housing --------------------------------------------------------92
2.4.1 Demography----------------------------------------92
2.4.2 Employment---------------------------------------100
2.4.3 Housing------------------------------------------106
3 Chapter Three: Nation-State and Laïcité: A Historical Development in France Engendering Immigrant and French Identity Problem---------------------------------------113
3.1 Identity, National Identity, Nation and Nation State---------------------------------------------------------114
3.1.1 Identity-----------------------------------------115
3.1.2 National Identity--------------------------------118
3.1.3 French National Identity-------------------------124
3.1.4 Nation-------------------------------------------128
3.1.5 Nation-State-------------------------------------135
3.2 French State and its Challenges--------------------141
3.2.1 French State in the Revolutionary Period---------141
3.2.2 Church and State Relation------------------------145
3.2.3 French State in the Twentieth Century------------150
3.2.4 French State under the Sway of Economic Pressure-----------------------------------------------------------154
3.2.5 European Identity Versus National Identity-------159
3.2.6 Refuge Crisis and European Integration-----------165
3.3 The Notion of Laïcité------------------------------171
3.3.1 Official Definition of Laïcité-------------------171
3.3.2 Historical Development of Laïcité in Three Stages----------------------------------------------------------175
3.3.3 The First Stage of Laïcité-----------------------178
3.3.4 The Second Stage of Laïcité----------------------183
3.3.5 The Third Stage of Laïcité-----------------------186
3.3.6 Two Forms of Civil Religion----------------------189
3.3.7 Catholicism and Civil Religion-------------------194
3.3.8 Ambiguity of Civil Religion----------------------198
4 Chapter Four: Two Theoretical Approaches for Integration: Communitarianism, Multiculturalism, and Their Incompatibility with French Republicanism--------------204
4.1 The Theory of Communitarianism---------------------205
4.1.1 Communitarianism in Historical Perspective-------205
4.1.2 Liberals, Nationalists, and Communitarians-------207
4.1.3 Community-Individual Relation--------------------215
4.1.5 Multinational Market Individualism and Communitarianism---------------------------------------218
4.2 Communitarian and French Republicanism-------------222
4.2.1 Communitarianism in France-----------------------223
4.2.2 Indivisible Republic and Community of the French Nation-------------------------------------------------226
4.2.3 Communitarianism as a Camouflage for Economic Disparity----------------------------------------------232
4.3 The Theory of Multiculturalism---------------------238
4.3.1 Analysis and Definition of Multiculturalism------239
4.3.2 Multiculturalism Viewed as Political Solution to Immigrants and Minority Issues-------------------------242
4.3.3 Long Presence of Minorities in Western Democracies---------------------------------------------------------247
4.3.4 Social Fragmentation as a Result of Multiculturalism---------------------------------------250
4.3.5 Citizenization as a Solution---------------------253
4.4 Multiculturalism and French Republicanism----------256
4.4.1 Republic Model of Assimilation-------------------257
4.4.2 Assimilation and Multiculturalism----------------260
4.4.3 Measurements of Multiculturalism and Its Failure in France-------------------------------------------------263
5 Chapter Five: The Evolving Sacred Laïcité: A Trend Towards Rigidity Unsuited for Vivre Ensemble-----------271
5.1 Muslims in France----------------------------------272
5.1.1 Estimated Numbers of Muslim Population-----------272
5.1.2 The Religiosity of Muslim Immigrants-------------276
5.1.3 Discriminations against Muslim Immigrants--------280
5.1.4 Diverse Origins of Muslims and Their Associations----------------------------------------------------------283
5.1.5 Religious Institutions of Muslim Immigrants------288
5.1.6 Muslim Identity in France------------------------292
5.1.7 Radicalization of Young Muslims------------------297
5.2 Muslim Challenges to Republicanism-----------------302
5.2.1 The Acute Clash of Freedom of Speech and Blasphemy---------------------------------------------------------302
5.2.2 The Controversy over Blasphemy-------------------307
5.2.3 Government’s Response to the Attack: A Reiteration of Laïcité---------------------------------------------318
5.2.4 Muslims’ Reaction to Charlie Hebdo---------------322
5.2.5 The UMP’s Debate on Laïcité on 5 April 2---------326
5.3 Future Republicanism-------------------------------334
5.3.1 Jacobian Republicanism and Its Two Challenges----335
5.3.2 The Baby-Loup Affair: The Ambiguous Application of Laïcité in Private Sector------------------------------343
5.3.3 The Burkini Controversy: The Expanded Application of Laïcité in Political Debate----------------------------362
6 Chapter Six: Conclusion------------------------------367

Bibliography-------------------------------------------387

List of Charts 
Chart 2-1: Visa---------------------------------------------------------------------------------55 
Chart 2-2: Visa of Circulation----------------------------------------------------------------55 
Chart 2-3: Admission of Stay Document (Admission au séjour)------------------------56 
Chart 2-4: Type of Stay Documents---------------------------------------------------------57 
Chart 2-5: The Level of Integration of Immigrants in France---------------------------65 
Chart 2-6: The Racisim Is a Phenomenon Widespread Enough in France-------------67 
Chart 2-7: We Can Find Manual Workers in France--------------------------------------68 
Chart 2-8: There Are Too Many Foreigners in France------------------------------------69 
Chart 2-9: To Reduce the Number of Unemployment in France, It Is Necessary to 
Reduce the Number of Immigrants--------------------------------------------71 
Chart 2-10: It Is Difficult for an Immigrant to Inegrate in France----------------------72 
Chart 2-11: The Immigrants Who Settle Down in France Do the Work That French 
Do Not Want to Do-------------------------------------------------------------72 
Chart 2-12: The Level of Tolerance of Different Religions------------------------------74 
Chart 2-13: The Anxiety Towards Religious Fundamentalists in France--------------77 
Chart 2-14: The Proportion of Muslim Extremists in France----------------------------78 
Chart 2-15: The Perception of Islam--------------------------------------------------------80 
Chart 2-16: The Attitude of Different Religions Practiced in France-------------------83 
Chart 2-17: The Condition of Religion Exercise in France------------------------------86 
Chart 2-18: The Compatibility of Dfferent Religions with the Values of the French 
Society (2013)------------------------------------------------------------------88 
Chart 2-19: The Compatibility of Dfferent Religions with the Values of the French Society (2015)------------------------------------------------------------------91 
Chart 2-20: The Evolution of Foreigner and Immigrants Population Until 2011------99 
Chart 2-21: Immigration in France--------------------------------------------------------100 
Chart 2-22: Roots Make a Difference-----------------------------------------------------103 
Chart 2-23: The Immigrants by Socio-Professional Categoryand Country of Birth----- 
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------105 
Chart 2-24: Net Hourly Salary by Gender and by Socioprofessional Categor-------106 
Chart 2-25: Housing Quality----------------------------------------------------------------108 
Chart 2-26: Housing Status-----------------------------------------------------------------109 
Chart 2-27: The Level of Relative Standard of Living----------------------------------111 
Chart 4-1: The Score Chart of Multicultural Index--------------------------------------266 
Chart 5-1: Estimated Number of Muslims in France------------------------------------273 
Chart 5-2: Religious Denomination in Accordance with the Link to Migration-----277 IX 

Chart 5-3: Religion as Identity in Accordance with the Denomination, Gender, and 
Religiosity-----------------------------------------------------------------------279

Bibliography 
Books 
Arbós, Xavier. and Salvador Giner. (1993), Ciudadanía y democracia en la 
encrucijada mundial, Madrid: Siglo. 
Asad, Talal. et al. (2009), Is Critique Secular? Blasphemy, Injury, and Free Speech, 
Berkeley: The Townsend Center for the Humanities, University of California. 
Balint, Peter and Sophie Guérard de Latour (eds.) (2013), Liberal Multiculturalism. 
and their Fair Terms of Integration, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan. 
Baubérot, Jean. (2004), Laïcité en France : entre passion et raison, Paris : Seuil. 
——. (2010), Histoire de la laïcité en France, 5th Edition, Paris : PUF. 
Bauman, Zygmunt. (2001), Community: Seeking Safety in an Insecure World, 
Malden: Blackwell. 
Berlinerblau, Jacques et al., (2014), Secularism on the Edge: Rethinking Church-State 
Relations in the United States, France, and Israel, New York: Palgrave MacMillan. 
Bowen, John R., (2010), Can Islam Be French? Pluralism and Pragmatism in a 
Secularist State, Princeton: Princeton University Press. 
Chafer, Tony and Emmanuel Godin, (eds.) (2010), The End of the French Exception?, 
Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan. 
Coq, Guy. (1995), Laïcité et république: le lien nécessaire, Paris: Edition du Félin. 
Dancygier, Rafaela M. (2010), Immigration and Conflict in Europe, Cambridge: 
Cambridge University Press. 
Doytcheva, Milena. (2011), Le multiculturalisme, Paris : la Découverte. 
Eagleton, Terry. (2011), On Evil, Connecticut: Yale University Press. 
Etzioni, Amitai. (1995), The Spirit of Community, London: Fontana Press. 388 

Fetzer, Joel S. (2000), Public attitudes toward immigration in the United States, 
France, and Germany, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
Finkelstein, Israel. and Neil Asher Silberman. (2002), The Bible Unearthed, New 
York: Touchstone. 
Fleras, Augie. (2009), The Politics of Multiculturalism, New York: Palgrave 
Macmillan. 
Fligstein, Neil. (2010), Euroclash: the EU, European Identity, and the future of 
Europe, Oxford: Oxford University Press. 
Fournier, Martine and Vincent Troger (dir.) (2005), Les mutations de l’école : Le 
regard des sociologues, Paris : Sciences Humaines Editions. 
Galston, William A. (2002), Liberal Pluralism: the implications of value pluralism 
for political theory and practice, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
Gay, Peter. (1966), The Enlightenment: The Rise of Modern Paganism, New York: 
Norton. 
Guibernau, Montserrat. (2007), The Identity of Nations, Cambridge: Polity. 
Halpern, Catherine. (dir.) (2009), Identité(s), l’individu, le groupe, la société, Paris : 
Sciences Humaines Editions. 
Julian Wright and H. S. Jones (eds.), (2012), Pluralism and the Idea of the 
Republic in France, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan. 
Kastoryano, Riva. (ed.) (1998), Quelle Identité Pour L’Europe ?, Paris : Presse de 
sciences po. 
Khermimoun, Jamel. (2014), L’identité heureuse : penser l’islam de France pour une 
nation unie, diverse et apaisée, Paris : Coëtquen Edition. 
Kiwan, Nadia. (2009), Identities, Discourses and Experiences: Young People of North 
African Origin in France, Manchester: Manchester University Press. 
Kymlicka, Will. (1996), Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority 
Rights, Oxford: Oxford University Press. 
Laurence, Jonathan and Justin Vaisse, (2006), Integrating Islam: Political and 389 

Religious Challenges in Contemporary France, Washington: The Brooking Institution. 
Leites, Edmund. (1988), “Governing Conduct,” in Edmund Leites (ed.), Conscience 
and Casuistry in Early Modern Europe, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
Le Moigne, Guy and André Lebon. (2002), L’immigration en France, 5th Edition, 
Paris: PUF. 
Levy, Jacob. (2000), The Multiculturalism of Fear, Oxford: Oxford University Press. 
Liogier, Raphaël. (2012), Le mythe de l'islamisation : essai sur une obsession 
collective, Le Seuil : Paris. 
Macey, Marie. (2009), Multiculturalism, Religion and Women: doing harm by doing 
good?, London: Palgrave MacMillan. 
Maillot, Agnès. (2008), Identité nationale et immigration : la liaison dangereuse, 
Paris : Carnets de l’info. 
Nugent, Neill. (2010), The Government and Politics of the European Union, 7th 
Edition, Basingstoke: Macmillan. 
Risse, Thomas. (2010), A Community of Europeans? Transnational Identities and 
Public Spheres, Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 
Savidan, Patrick. (2011), Le Multiculturalisme, Paris : PUF. 
Schnapper, Dominique. (2003), La communauté des citoyens : Sur l'idée moderne de 
nation, Paris : Gallimard. 
Scholt, Cyrille. (2014), Cahiers de la sécurité et de la justice : la radicalisation 
violente, Paris : La documentation française. 
Smith, Anthony D. (2008), The Cultural Foundations of Nations, Malden: Blackwell 
Taylor, Charles. (ed.) (1994), Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of 
Recognition, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. 390 

Tam, Henry. (1998), Communitarianism: A New Agenda for Politics and Citizenship, 
New York: New York University Press. 
Tilly, Charles. (1992), Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990-1992, 
Oxford: Blackwell. 
Tony, Chafer. and Emmanuel Godin. (2010), The End of the French Exception?: 
Decline and Revival of the ‘French Mode’, New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 
Venel, Nancy. (2004), Musulmans et citoyens, Paris : PUF. 
Vincent, Andrew. (2002), Nationalism and Particularism, Cambridge: Cambridge 
University Press. 
Wright, Julian and H. S. Jones, (eds.) (2012), Pluralism and the Idea of the Republic 
in France, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan. 
Zuber, Valentine. (2014), Le culte des droits de l’homme, Paris : Gallimard. 391 

Journals and Articles 
Baubérot, Jean. (2003), “La République et la laïcité : entretien avec Jean Baubérot”, 
Regards sur l’actualité, No. 298. 
——. (Summer 2007), “Existe-t-il une religion civile républicaine ?”, French Politics, 
Culture & Society, Vol. 25, No. 2 …… 
Bell, Daniel. “Communitarianism,” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/communitarianism/, online version 25 January, 2012. (Accessed 25 September 2014) 
Borne, Dominique and Jean-Paul Delahaye. (2003), “la laïcité dans l’enseignement : 
problématique et enjeux”, Regards sur l’actualité, No. 298. 
Ceyhan, Ayse. (1993), “Le communautarisme et la question de la reconnaissance,” 
Cultures & Conflicts, No. 12, http://conflits.revues.org/447. (Accessed 29 July, 2014) 
Choi, Sung. (Spring 2011), “The Muslim Veteran in Postcolonial France: the Politics 
of the Integration of Harkis after 1962,” French Politics, Culture & Society, Vol. 29, No. 1. 
Chauvière, Michel. (March 2007), “La place des associations dans la vie publique 
française,” Regards sur l’actualité, No. 333. 
Chartier, Claire and Julie Saulnier, “Islam : la tentation communautariste,” L’express, 
No. 3249, 15 October 2013. 
“Chronique : histoire de l’immigration en dates,” www.vie-publique.fr, 
http://www.vie-publique.fr/politiques-publiques/politique-immigration/chronologie-immigration/. (Accessed 15 February) 
de Benoist, Alain. (January 2013), “Français et Allemande”, Le Spectacle du monde. 
Corm, George. (2007), “Pluralisme et communautarisme dans la citoyenneté 
moderne : remarques méthodologiques”, Annales de philosophie et des sciences humaines, No. 23, Vol. 1. 392 

Denis, Bruno. (March 2007), “Editorial”, Regards sur l’actualité, No. 333. 
Dos Santos, Manon Dominigues. (March-April 2015), “Besoins en main-d’oeuvre et 
immigration,” Cahiers français, No. 385. 
Etzioni, Amitai. (Spring 1990), “Liberals and Communitarians,” Partisan Review, 
Vol., 57. 
Fernando, Mayanthi. (Summer 2005), “The Republic’s ‘Second Religion’: 
Recognizing Islam in France”, Middle East Report, Vol. 35(2). 
Giry, Stéphanie. (2006), “France and Its Muslims”, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 85, No. 5. 
Heine, Sophie. (October 2008), “La dimension communautarienne du républicanisme 
français,” Raison Publique, No. 9, http://www.raison-ublique.fr/article357.html. (Accessed 29 July, 2014) 
Héran, François. (March-April 2015), “L’immigration en France : des chiffres en 
débat,” Cahiers français, No. 385. 
Kastoryano, Riva. (2000), “Des multiculturalisme en Europe au multiculturalisme 
européen”, Politique Etrangère, Vol. 65, No. 1. 
Kymlicka, Will. (2012), Multiculturalism: Success, Failure, and the Future, 
Washington DC : Migration Policy Institute. 
Le communautarisme est-il compatible avec les valeurs de la République ?”, Le Droit 
Humain, http://www.droithumain-france.org/le-communautarisme-est-il-compatible-avec-les-valeurs-de-la-republique/. (Accessed 30 July, 2014) 
Leterre, Thierry. (September-October 2011), “Quelle place pour l’État dans la 
mondialisation?”, Cahiers français, No. 364. 
Martinache, Igor. (May 2010), “Le communautarisme menace-t-il le lien social ?”, 
Alternatives Économiques, No. 291, http://www.alternatives-economiques.fr/le-communautarisme-menace-t-il-le-lien-social-_fr_art_925_49316.html. (Accessed 30 July, 2014) 393 

Nora, Pierre. (March-April, 2014), “Malheureuse, oui, mais pourquoi ?” Le débat, No. 
179. 
Portier, Philippe. (January-February 2008), “Laïcité : la fin de l’exception 
française ?”, Cahiers français, No. 34. 
Renaut, Alain. (February 2015), “Le multiculturalisme, jusqu’où ? Une situation 
française,” Cahiers français, No. 385. 
Schnapper, Dominique. (January-February 2008), “La condition d’identité nationale : 
quelles significations?”, Cahiers français, No. 342. 
——. (2004), “La République face aux communautarismes”, Études, Tome 400, 
http://www.cairn.info/article_p.php?ID_ARTICLE=ETU_002_0177. (Accessed 31 July 2014) 
Schor, Naomi. (2001),“The Crisis of French Universalism”, Yale French Studies, No. 
100. 
Thiesse, Anne-Marie. (January-February 2008), “Crise identitaire, crise de la 
modernité”, Cahiers français, No. 342. 
Tribalat, Michèle. (February 2015), “Assimilation versus multiculturalisme,” Cahiers 
français, No. 385. 
Vavasseur-Desperrier, Jean. (December 2002), “De la monarchie à la république”, Les 
sciences humaines, No. 133. 
Wieviorka, Michel. (2012), “Laïcité et multiculturalisme,” Regards sur l’actualité, 
No. 373. 
Williame, Jean-Paul. (1998),“Religious and Secular France Between Northern and 
Southern Europe”, Social Compass, 45(1). 
——. (1985), “La religion civile à la française”, Les cahiers du christianisme social, 
No. 6. 394 

News and Reports 
“Agression d’un lycéen à Châteauroux : Vallaud-Belkacem salue « la réaction rapide 
et ferme » du lycée,” 20 January 2015, http://www.vousnousils.fr/2015/01/16/agression-dun-lyceen-a-chateauroux-vallaud-belkacem-salue-la-reaction-rapide-et-ferme-du-lycee-560960. (Accessed 31 December, 2015) 
Algan, Yann et al., “The Economic Situation of First and Second-Generation 
Immigrants in France and Germany and the United Kingdom,” The Economic Journal, No. 120 (February, 2009), F19, http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~uctpb21/Cpapers/AlganDustmannGlitzManning2010.pdf. (Accessed 10 July 2014) 
“An edgy inquiry”, The Economist, Digital Edition, 4 April, 2015 
Babelmin, Sabah. “Lollipop, 17 ans : « Je porte le niqab et je ne crois en aucun Dieu »”, www.saphirnews.fr, 16 March 2016, http://www.saphirnews.com/Lollipop-17-ans-Je-porte-le-niqab-et-je-ne-crois-en-aucun-Dieu_a22068.html. (Accessed 16 March, 2016) 
Badieu, Alain. “Le rouge et le Tricolore”, Le monde, 28 January 2015 
Boual, Jean Claude. “A propos de la notion d’entreprise de tendance ou de conviction et l’affaire « Baby-Loup »”, http://www.egale.eu/uploads/fichiers_PDF/entreprise%20de%20tendance%20V2.pdf. (Accessed 6 January, 2016) 
Chastand, Jean-Baptiste. “A Châteauroux, la désillusion post-‘Charlie’”, Le monde, 23 
January 2015. 
Chevrier, Guylain. “Crèche Baby Loup et Laïcité: toutes les clefs pour comprendre 
l’affaire”, Le Figaro, 24 June 2014, http://www.lefigaro.fr/vox/societe/2014/06/24/31003-20140624ARTFIG00171-creche-baby-loup-et-laicite-toutes-les-clefs-pour-comprendre-l-affaire.php. (Accessed 1 Fenbruary, 2016) 
Chambraud, Cécile. “Les pouvoirs publics sont toujours en quête de musulmans 
idéaux,” www.lemonde.fr, 18 September 2016. 
——. “Des colloques pour y voir plus clair sur le fait religieux musulman,” 
www.lemonde.fr, 17 September 2016, http://abonnes.lemonde.fr/religions/article/2016/09/17/des-colloques-pour-y-395 

voir-plus-clair-sur-le-fait-religieux-musulman_4999269_1653130.html. (Accessed 3 January, 2017) 
Copé, Jean-François. “Une lettre à un ami musulman”, L’express, 29 March 2011, 
http://www.lexpress.fr/actualite/politique/cope-lettre-a-un-ami-musulman_977445.html. (Accessed 31 December, 2015) 
Dagens, Claude (dir.), “Lettre aux catholique de France : « Proposer la foi dans la 
société actuelle »”, 9 November 1996, http://ec.cef.fr/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2014/05/dagens.pdf. (Accessed June 15, 2015) 
d’Allonnes, David Revault. “La République, valeur refuge de M. Hollande,” Le 
monde, 6 February 2015. 
“Dans les banlieues sensibles, le djihad séduit une ‘ultra-minorité’,” 
www.ladepeche.fr, 22 March 2012, 
http://www.ladepeche.fr/article/2012/03/22/1312522-dans-les-banlieues-sensibles-le-jihad-seduit-une-ultra-minorite.html. (Accessed 25 April, 2014) 
Delcambre, Alexis and Olivier Faye. “Les catholiques de gauche se mobilisent contre 
le FN,” www.lemonde.fr, 7 October 2016, http://abonnes.lemonde.fr/politique/article/2016/10/07/les-catholiques-de-gauche-se-mobilisent-contre-la-progression-du-fn_5009718_823448.html. (Accessed 4 January, 2017) 
Duhamel, Alain. “L’UMP et la laïcité”, TRL Matin, 6 April 2011, 
http://www.rtl.fr/actu/politique/l-ump-et-la-laicite-7674654871. (Accessed 31 December, 2015) 
Durpaire, François. “L’école est Charle, mais pas tous nos élèves!,” Le monde, 23 
January 2015. 
Études et documents du Conseil d’État, (Paris : La documentation française, 2004), p. 
245, http://www.ladocumentationfrancaise.fr/var/storage/rapports-publics/044000121.pdf. (Accessed 08 June, 215) 
“Évolution de la part des populations étrangères et immigrées jusqu'en 2011,” 
www.insee.fr, http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=Nattef02131. (Accessed 5 July, 2014) 
Faye, Olivier. “Pourquoi le discours de Marine Le Pen reste profondément d’extrême 
droite,” www.lemonde.fr, 24 October 2016, www.lemonde.fr/les-decodeurs/article/2016/10/24/pourquoi-le-discours-de-marine-le-pen-reste-396 

profondement-d-extreme-droite_5019307_4355770.html#O27eorrmSKEby4O7.99. (Accessed 3 January, 2017) 
“Faut-il étendre la laïcité au secteur privé ?” www.lemonde.com, 28 March 2013, 
www.lemonde.fr/idees/article/2013/03/28/faut-il-etendre-la-laicite-au-secteur-prive_3149885_3232.html. (Accessed 5 January, 2017) 
Fillon, François. “La laïcité doit s'étendre à l'entreprise privée,” www.lemonde.fr, 27 
March 2013, www.lemonde.fr/idees/article/2013/03/27/la-laicite-doit-s-etendre-a-l-entreprise-privee_3148787_3232.html. (Accessed 5 January, 2017) 
Fontaine, Dominique. “Une laïcité avec les religions,” www.revue-projet.com, 12 
December 2016, http://www.revue-projet.com/articles/2016-11-fontaine-une-laicite-avec-les-religions/. (Accessed 4 January, 2017) 
“Fractures Française Vague2 : 2014”, Ipsos, www.ipsos.fr, January 2014. 
“France 2013 : les nouvelles fractures,” Ipsos, www.ipsos.fr, January 2013. 
“France’s missing refugees: Non, merci”, The Economist, Digital Edition, 30 January, 
2016. 
“Freedom of Speech: The Sound of Silence,” The Economist, Digital Edition, 24 
January 2015. 
“Il muro europeo dell’indifferenza,” www.corriere.it, 23 October 2013. 
Kovacs, Stéphane. "France: 12 millions d'immigrés et d'enfants d'immigrés," Le 
figaro, 10 Octobor 2012, http://www.lefigaro.fr/actualite-france/2012/10/10/01016-20121010ARTFIG00262-immigration-les-chiffres-de-l-insee.php. (Accessed 20 July, 2014) 
“L’affaire Baby Loup en quatre question,” Le monde, 27 November 2013 
“La perception par les Français des attentats, de la mobilisation du 11 janvier et de la 
place de l’islam en France,” Ipsos, www.ipsos.fr, January 2015. 
Le Bars, Stéphanie. “La religion musulmane fait l’objet d’un profond rejet de la part 
des Français,” Le monde, 24 January 2013. 397 

Le Guellec, Gurvan. “50 nuances de laïcité... Et vous, quel laïque êtes-vous ?”, 
www.nouvelobs.com, 25 September 2016, 
http://tempsreel.nouvelobs.com/societe/20160920.OBS8362/50-nuances-de-laicite-et-vous-quel-laique-etes-vous.html. (Accessed 3 January, 2017) 
Le Pen, Marine. “Discours de Marine Le Pen aux Estivales de Fréjus,” 18 September 
2016, www.frontnational.com, http://www.frontnational.com/videos/discours-de-marine-le-pen-aux-estivales-de-frejus/. (Accessed 2 January 2017) 
“Leaders”, The Economist, Digital Edition, 12 September 2015. 
“Les descendants d'immigrés plus nombreux que les immigrés : une position française 
originaire en Europe, édition 2012," www.insee.fr, p. 22, 
http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/ref/IMMFRA12_b_VE_posfra.pdf. (Accessed 5 July, 2014) 
“Les Français et la laïcité,” www.bva.fr, 19 October 2013, 
www.bva.fr/data/sondage/sondage_fiche/1366/fichier_bva_pour_i_tele-cqfd_-laicite6000a.pdf. (Accessed 5 January, 2017) 
“Les frères Kouachi se disaient mandatés par Al-Qaïda au Yémen”, 
http://www.france24.com/fr/20150109-attentat-charlie-hebdo-said-kouachi-al-qaida-yemen-aqpa/. (Accessed 1 December, 2015) 
“Les immigrés par catégorie socioprofessionnelle et pays de naissance,” 
www.insee.fr, 
http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau_local.asp?ref_id=IMG3B&millesime=2010&niveau=1&typgeo=METRODOM&codgeo=1. (Accessed 5 July 2014) 
“Les prières dans la rue doivent cesser,” Le Figaro, 14 September 2011, 
http://www.lefigaro.fr/actualite-france/2011/09/14/01016-20110914ARTFIG00722-gueant-les-prieres-dans-la-rue-doivent-cesser.php. (Accessed 5 May, 2014) 
Mandonnet, Eric. “L’islam sera un thème de l’élection en 2012”, L’express, 28 
January, 2011. 398 

Manenti, Boris. “Elections régionales : qui a voté FN?,” www.nouvellobs.com, 8 
December 2015, http://tempsreel.nouvelobs.com/politique/elections-regionales-2015/20151208.OBS0971/elections-regionales-qui-a-vote-fn.html. (Accessed 2 January, 2017) 
“Marine Le Pen compare les ‘prières de rue’ des musulmans à une ‘occupation’ ”, Le monde, 11 
December, 2011. 
Maximin, Daniel. (June 2015), “La laïcité, une étrangeté française ou un projet 
universel ?”, Rapport annuel de l’Obervatoire de la laïcité 2014-2015. 
Meirieu, Philippe. “L’accès à l’école a été démocratisé, pas la réussite,” Le Monde, 24 
January, 2015. 
“Ménage à trois: The National Front’s strength makes French politics a three-way 
affair”, The Economist, Digital Edition, 28 March, 2015. 
Messina, Marine. “Qui sont les français sur la piste du djihad?,” Le monde, 19 
November, 2014. 
Muhammad, Marwan. “Débat sur laïcité : un musulman répond à Copé”, 
www.foulexpress.com, 31 March, 2011, http://www.foulexpress.com/2011/03/debat-sur-la-laicite-un-musulman-repond-a-cope/. (Accessed 31 December, 2015) 
“Multiculturalism Policy Index”, http://www.queensu.ca/mcp. (Accessed 5 June, 
2014) 
“Onze mesures pour une grande mobilisation de l'École pour les valeurs de la 
République,” http://www.education.gouv.fr/cid85644/onze-mesures-pour-une-grande-mobilisation-de-l-ecole-pour-les-valeurs-de-la-republique.html. (Accessed 30 December, 2015) 
Pouchard, Alexandre and Samuel Laurent. “Quel est le poids de l’islam en 
France ?,” Le monde, 21 January, 2015. 
Ray, Jean-Emmanuel. “Peut-on interdire tout signe religieux au travail ?,” Le monde, 399 

30 June, 2014. 
Rouibah, Hicham. “Des « islamiste », mais pourquoi jamais de « christianiste » ni de 
« judaïste »?,” www.saphirnews.com, 13 April 2015, http://www.saphirnews.com/Des-islamistes--mais-pourquoi-jamais-de-christianistes-ni-de-judaistes_a20611.html. (Accessed 26 October, 2015) 
Roy, Olivier. “La peur d’une communauté qui n’existe pas,” Le monde, 9 January, 
2015 
Severgnini, Beppe. “Il muro europeo dell’indifferenza,” www.corriere.it, 23 October, 
2013, http://www.corriere.it/editoriali/13_ottobre_14/muro-europeo-dell-indifferenza-a55d1e30-3490-11e3-b0aa-c50e06d40e68.shtml?refresh_ce-cp. (Accessed 26 August, 2014) 
Simon, Patrick and Vincent Tiberj. (July 2013), “Documents de travail 196 : 
sécularisation ou regain religieux : la religiosité des immigrés et de leurs descendants,” www.teo.site.ined.fr, p. 6, https://www.ined.fr/fichier/s_rubrique/19585/document_.travail_2013_196_religion.fr.pdf. (Accessed 10 October, 2015) 
“Sur l'immigration, le discours de Juppé à rebours de l'UMP,” 9 September, 2014, 
http://www.liberation.fr/politiques/2014/09/09/sur-l-immigration-le-discours-de-juppe-a-rebours-de-l-ump_1096814. (Accessed 1 August, 2015) 
“Tableaux de l’économie française, édition 2014,” www.insee.fr, p. 57, 
http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/tef2014.pdf. (Accessed 5 July, 2014) 
“The Attack on Charlie Hebdo: Terror in Paris,” The Economist, Digital Edition, 10 
January, 2015. 
“The shadow of the caliphate,” The Economist, Digital Edition, 20 June, 2015. 
“The Syrian exodus”, The Economist, Digital Edition, 12 September, 2015. 
“Train ‘em up. Kick ‘em out”, The Economist, Digital Edition, 30 January, 2016. 
Tresca, Malo. “Extrême droite, des mouvements chrétiens proposent de réfléchir,” 
www.la-croix.com, http://www.la-croix.com/Religion/France/Ces-mouvements-chretiens-sopposent-lextreme-droite-2016-10-05-1200794039. (Accessed 4 400 

January 2017) 
"Trop de musulmans en France ? Claude Guéant persiste et signe," www.latribune.fr, 
4 April, 2011, http://www.latribune.fr/actualites/economie/france/20110404trib000613037/trop-de-musulmans-en-france-claude-gueant-persiste-et-signe.html. (Accessed 4 November, 2014) 
“Une mosquée fréquentée par la famille Sid Ahmed Ghlam ravagée par un incendie,” 
www.saphirnews.fr, 24 April, 2015, 
http://www.saphirnews.com/Une-mosquee-frequentee-par-la-famille-Sid-Ahmed-Ghlam-ravagee-par-un-incendie_a20702.html. (Accessed 23 November, 2015) 
Verbunt, Gilles. “L'intégration culturelle v-t-elle enfin s'imposer ?”, Le monde, 24 
February 2011. 
“Vue d'ensemble-Les descendants d'immigrés plus nombreux que les immigrés, 
2012”, www.ineed.fr, http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/ref/IMMFRA12_b_VE_posfra.pdf. (Accessed 5 July, 2014) 
Weider, Thomas. “La place des partis dans la marche républicaine fait débat,” Le 
monde, 9 January, 2015. 
——. “Le tripartisme s’installe en France,” Le monde, 24 March, 2015. 
Woehrling, Jean-Marie. “Peut-on étendre le principe de neutralité religieuse à 
l'entreprise ?” www.lemonde.fr, 27 March 2013, www.lemonde.fr/idees/article/2013/03/27/peut-on-etendre-le-principe-de-neutralite-religieuse-a-l-entreprise_3148899_3232.html. (Accessed 6 January, 2017)