政黨於採行民主體制的現代民主國家為不可或缺之政治媒介，受到環境與政治文化影響而產生不同特色，並為爭取執政與多數認同而彼此競爭。美國的政黨政治受政治制度與社會環境的影響，卻非在最開始時即受到認同。開國元勳們僅認可政黨難以消滅而未給予正面評價，直至政治發展導致政治人士彼此之間的利益有所衝突。不同經濟政策理念與對聯邦政府權力擴展與否，促使喬治．華盛頓政府內部有所衝突：財政部長漢彌爾頓主張重商政策與強力的國家政府，國務卿湯瑪斯．傑佛遜維持農業利益與民眾自我管理。追求改造國會的結構、全國政治報紙的出現、地區利益有別、意識形態的差別與民眾對於傳統政治模式的挑戰等因素，兩人的支持者最終因外交因素組成兩個美國的最初政黨：聯邦黨與民主共和黨。

兩個最初政黨的成員均相信其致力於挽救美國，質疑其敵手陰謀毀滅國家。透過應對法國外交危機取得優勢，聯邦黨制定政策推動其奉行之強力中央政府的方針，並試圖以「外籍法與懲治叛亂法」維護傳統的菁英政治參與。民主共和黨認定此係違憲擴權，而傑佛遜提出「肯塔基與維吉尼亞宣言」之原稿，主張州有權廢止聯邦法律的憲法理論意圖反制。聯邦黨質疑對立者主張聯邦解體，民主共和黨認定該年選舉為保衛共和體制的最後機會，雙方在一八零零年大選相繼極端化，雙方均不惜犧牲美國存續作為解決總統當選人懸而未決之政治僵局的代價。

聯邦黨於一八零零年大選失利而同時失去立法與行政部門的主導權，政治分歧轉發生於以約翰．馬歇爾首席大法官為首、仍秉持聯邦黨政治思想的聯邦司法部門和民主共和黨掌握的行政與立法部門。於此同時，美國社會持續處於轉型之中，傾向平等與民主思想的民眾成為新社會的中堅力量。仍以菁英為核心的聯邦黨無法適應此種變化並難以轉型為真正的政黨，無力應對傑佛遜之執政擴大民主共和黨的優勢，逐漸萎縮為地方政黨之餘，黨內的強硬派開始提倡脫離聯邦。一八一二年爆發的美英戰爭促使民主共和黨接受強力國家政府的政策之際，未能適應社會變化且悲觀的聯邦黨成員選擇於一八一四年末，在康乃狄克哈特福德舉行過程不透明的政治集會，讓其名譽掃地並被質疑叛國。固然聯邦黨因無法復原而於一八一零年代末期瓦解，兩個政黨部分的爭執仍為次一個政黨體制所承繼。

藉由分析歷史書籍與相關文獻，本論文聚焦於一七八七年至一八一四年間之早期美國政治與政黨發展；透過研究政黨奠基、極端化與衰退等三個時期，從而解釋美國政黨的發展與影響。

Political parties are necessary instruments for political affairs in the modern democratic countries. Such parties would have the particular characters through different environments and political cultures and compete for powers. The combinations of the American political parties are influenced by the specific political institutions and social circumstances, but they have not been approved in the very beginning; although they understood that it was inevitable, Founding Fathers did not appreciate the existence of political parties. However, the political developments created collisions between the leading political figures of 1790s. 

In addition to the disagreement on the economical development, the principle argument within George Washington administration was the scale of the federal government; Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton promoted the mercantile programs and a consolidated government, and Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson supported the ideas of agricultural interests and self-government. With the efforts to alter the composition of Congress, the establishment of the national political newspapers, the sectional interests, the different political ideologies, the challenge to the traditional hierarchy and the European issues, adherents of Hamilton and Jefferson eventually assembled as the two first political parties: the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party.

Each of them believed that they were trying to save the Union and conjectured that their adversaries conspired to ruin their nation. By the advantages responding to the French crisis, the ardent Federalist congressional members initiated the policies enhancing the federal government, and they also enacted “The Alien and Sedition Acts” to preserve the traditional elite leadership. The Democratic-Republicans considered such policies were unconstitutional; Jefferson delivered the original draft of “The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions,” which proposed that the state had the right to null and void unconstitutional federal laws. The two parties became radicalized during the general election of 1800. The Federalists believed their opponents were disunionists, the Democratic-Republicans considered the election as the final opportunity to defend the republican institution, and both of them had the willing to sacrifice the continuance of the Union to resolve the gridlock of determining the President-elect.

After the Federalists lost the elections of 1800, the political conflicts were occurred between the federal judicial branch, whose members leading by Chief Justice John Marshall remained strong Federalist thinking, and the other two branches occupying by President Jefferson and Democratic-Republicans. In the meantime, the contemporary Americans continued to experience the social transformation; the people advocating egalitarian and democratic ideas became the leading force in the new society. The Federalists were unable to respond adequately or re-organize as a solid political force confronting the popular Jefferson government; they retreated as a sectional party of New England, and the pessimistic radicals began to urge secession. 

While the Democratic-Republicans gradually acknowledged and accepted the importance of the powerful federal government during the War of 1812, the New England Federalists held a confidential convention at Hartford, Connecticut in the end of 1814. The messages of the Hartford Convention were publicly announced after the war was over. Although the Federalists were disgraced, suspected treason and their party collapsed in the final years of 1810s, some controversies between the two first political parties were inherited by the next generation. 

The thesis would put emphasize on the developments of the political parties on the period from 1787 to 1814; by analyzing the historical books, papers and other materials, the thesis would introduce the first parties in different phases, including the beginning, the radicalizing and the decline, to present the main theme: the influence of the first parties in the early republic of America.

章節目錄
第一章：序論	1
第二章：現代美國政黨與政黨的起源	11
前言	11
第一節：政黨簡論	12
第二節：現代美國政黨簡論	18
第三節：政黨起源與對政黨角色認定	24
小結	35
第三章：喬治．華盛頓任期(1789~1797)－最初政黨之成形	37
前言	37
第一節：最初政黨的意識型態	39
第二節：最初政黨競爭與國會選舉	49
第三節：地域主義與社會變遷－最初政黨的結構與組成	58
第四節：傑伊條約與最初政黨的全面對立	67
小結	78
第四章：約翰．亞當斯任期(1797~1801)－最初政黨的極端化	81
前言	81
第一節：一七九六年－美國總統選舉初次實質競爭	84
第二節：美法準戰－最初政黨與外交應對	94
第三節：「外籍法與懲治煽動法」與「肯塔基與維吉尼亞宣言」	104
第四節：一八零零年－最初政黨與美國總統選舉初次僵局	115
小結	129
第五章：傑佛遜年代(1801~1814)－最初政黨政治的衰弱	133
前言	133
第一節：一八零一年後之政黨對立與聯邦最高法院	135
第二節：民主共和黨再擴張與聯邦黨的萎縮	148
第三節：一八一二年戰爭與聯邦黨瓦解	159
小結	174
第六章：結論	177
附錄	180
參考文獻	181
專書	181
文獻與論文	183
新聞與雜誌	189
記名投票紀錄	189
網站	190

表目錄
表2-1：一七九二年總統選舉與國會席位變化	58
表3-1：一七九六年總統選舉與國會席位變化	93
表3-2：一七九八第六屆國會席位變化	113
表3-3：一八零零年總統選舉與國會席位變化	128
表4-1：一八零四年總統選舉與國會席位變化	152
表4-2：一八零八年總統選舉與國會席位變化	163
表4-3：一八一二年總統選舉與國會席位變化	168
表4-4：一八一六年總統選舉與國會席位變化	172
表4-5：一八二零年總統選舉與國會席位變化	173

圖目錄
一八零零年時的美國區域(Regions)	180

專書
Ackerman, Bruce. The Failure of the Founding Fathers: Jefferson, Marshall, and the Rise of Presidential Democracy (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005). 

Aldrich, John H. Why Parties?: The Origin and Transformation of Political Parties in America (Chicago: University Of Chicago Press; 1 edition, 1995).

Banning, Lance. The Jeffersonian Persuasion: Evolution of a Party Ideology (New York: Cornell University Press, 1980).

Bassett, John Spencer. The Federalist system, 1789-1801 (New York: J. & J. Harper Editions, 1968).

Ben-Atar, Doron S. and MacMillan, Liz B. Federalist Reconsidered (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1999).

Borneman, Walter R. 1812: The War That Forged a Nation (New York: Harper Perennial, 2005).

Buel Jr., Richard. America on the Brink: How the Political Struggle over the War of 1812 Almost Destroyed the Young Republic (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006).

Daniel, Marcus. Scandal and Civility: Journalism and the Origins of American Politics (Cary: Oxford University Press, 2010). 

Dauer, Manning Julian. The Adams Federalists (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1968). 
De Conde, Alexander. The Quasi-War: the politics and diplomacy of the undeclared war with France 1797-1801 (New York: Charles Scribner's, 1966).

Ferling, John. Adams v. Jefferson: The Tumultuous Election of 1800 (New York: Oxford University Press USA, 2005). 

Ferling, John. A Leap in the Dark: The Struggle to Create the American Republic (New York: Oxford University Press USA, 2004). 

Freeman, Joanne B. Affairs of Honor: National Politics in the New Republic (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002). 

Hofstadter, Richard. The Idea of a Party System: The Rise of Legitimate Opposition in the United States, 1780-1840 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970).

Ketcham, Ralph. Presidents Above Party: The First American Presidency, 1789-1829 (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1987).

Miller, John C. The Federalist Era, 1789-1801 (New York: Harper & Row, 1963).

Newmyer, Kent R. John Marshall and the Heroic Age of the Supreme Court (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2007) . 

Palsey, Jeffery L. The Tyranny of the Printers: Newspaper Politics and the Early American Politics (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2002). 

Rossiter, Clinton. The Federalist Papers (New York: Signet Classics, 2003)

Sharp, James Roger. American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993).

Simon, James F. What Kind of Nation: Thomas Jefferson, John Marshall, and the Epic Struggle to Create a United States (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003). 

Sloan, Cliff. and McKean David. The Great Decision: Jefferson, Adams, Marshall, and the Battle for the Supreme Court (Jackson: PublicAffairs, 2009).

Ware, Alan. Political Parties and Party Systems (London: Oxford University Press, 1996).

Wood, Gordon S. Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789-1815 (New York: Oxford University Press USA, 2009). 

王育三，「美國政府」，台北市：台灣商務印書館，二次修訂，一九九八年。

呂亞力，「政治學」，台北市：三民書局，修訂五版，二零零一年。

張金鑑，「美國政府」，台北市：三民書局，七版，一九九五年。

逯扶東，「西洋政治思想史」，台北市：三民書局，初版，二零零二年。

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新聞與雜誌
“David Cameron is UK's new prime minister,” BBC NEWS, British Broadcasting Cooperation, 12 May 2010. Retrieved 15 May 2011.  
< http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/election_2010/8675265.stm>

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< http://thehill.com/homenews/senate/83407-senate-passes-jobs-bill-70-28> 

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< http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/10_50/b4207035613107.htm>

Werkhauser, Nina. Nancy Isenson (Ed.), “Greens make history as they take over Germany's conservative southwest,” DW-World.de, Deutsche Welle, 12 May 2011. 
< http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,15068529,00.html>

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< http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/18/us/politics/18alaska.html?hp>


記名投票紀錄
U.S. Senate Roll Call Votes Record on the Cloture Motion (Motion to Invoke Cloture on the Nomination of John J. McConnell, Jr. of Rhode Island to be U.S. District Judge.), Senate.gov, United States Senate, May 4, 2011. 
< http://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_lists/roll_call_vote_cfm.cfm?congress=112&session=1&vote=00065 >

U.S. Senate Roll Call Votes Record on the Cloture Motion (Motion to Invoke Cloture on the Nomination of Goodwin Liu, of California, to be U.S. Circuit Judge for the Ninth Circuit ), Senate.gov, United States Senate, May 19, 2011. 
< http://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_lists/roll_call_vote_cfm.cfm?congress=112&session=1&vote=00074>

網站
美國參議院(United States Senate)
< http://senate.gov>

美國眾議院(United States House of Representatives)
< http://house.gov>

美國國家檔案館(National Archive and Records Administration)
< http:/www.archives.gov>

AlabamaMaps.com
< http://alabamamaps.ua.edu>